Conus ateralbus is a cone snail endemic to the west side of the island of Sal, in the Cabo Verde Archipelago off West Africa. We describe the isolation and characterization of the first bioactive peptide from the venom of this species. This 30AA venom peptide is named conotoxin AtVIA (δ-conotoxin-like). An excitatory activity was manifested by the peptide on a majority of mouse lumbar dorsal root ganglion neurons. An analog of AtVIA with conservative changes on three amino acid residues at the C-terminal region was synthesized and this analog produced an identical effect on the mouse neurons. AtVIA has homology with δ-conotoxins from other worm-hunters, which include conserved sequence elements that are shared with δ-conotoxins from fish-hunting Conus. In contrast, there is no comparable sequence similarity with δ-conotoxins from the venoms of molluscivorous Conus species. A rationale for the potential presence of δ-conotoxins, that are potent in vertebrate systems in two different lineages of worm-hunting cone snails, is discussed.

Within the phylum Cnidaria, sea anemones (class Anthozoa) express a rich diversity of ion-channel peptide modulators with biomedical applications, but corollary discoveries from jellyfish (subphylum Medusozoa) are lacking. To bridge this gap, bioactivities of previously unexplored proteinaceous and small molecular weight (~15 kDa to 5 kDa) venom components were assessed in a mouse dorsal root ganglia (DRG) high-content calcium-imaging assay, known as constellation pharmacology. While the addition of crude venom led to nonspecific cell death and Fura-2 signal leakage due to pore-forming activity, purified small molecular weight fractions of venom demonstrated three main, concentration-dependent and reversible effects on defined heterogeneous cell types found in the primary cultures of mouse DRG. These three phenotypic responses are herein referred to as phenotype A, B and C: excitatory amplification (A) or inhibition (B) of KCl-induced calcium signals, and test compound-induced disturbances to baseline calcium levels (C). Most notably, certain Alatina alata venom fractions showed phenotype A effects in all DRG neurons; Physalia physalis and Chironex fleckeri fractions predominantly showed phenotype B effects in small- and medium-diameter neurons. Finally, specific Physalia physalis and Alatina alata venom components induced direct excitatory responses (phenotype C) in glial cells. These findings demonstrate a diversity of neuroactive compounds in jellyfish venom potentially targeting a constellation of ion channels and ligand-gated receptors with broad physiological implications.

Mollusk-hunting (molluscivorous) cone snails belong to a monophyletic group in Conus, a genus of venomous marine snails. The molluscivorous lineage evolved from ancestral worm-hunting (vermivorous) snails ∼18 million years ago. To enable the shift to a molluscivorous lifestyle, molluscivorous cone snails must solve biological problems encountered when hunting other gastropods, namely: 1) preventing prey escape and 2) overcoming the formidable defense of the prey in the form of the molluscan shell, a problem unique to molluscivorous Conus. Here we show that χ-conotoxins, peptides exclusively expressed in the venoms of molluscivorous Conus, provide solutions to the above problems. Injecting χ-conotoxins into the gastropod mollusk Aplysia californica results in impaired locomotion and uncoordinated hyperactivity. Impaired locomotion impedes escape and a hyperactive snail will likely emerge from its shell, negating the protection the shell provides. Thus, χ-conotoxins are an evolutionary innovation that accompanied the emergence of molluscivory in Conus and provide solutions to problems posed by hunting other snails.

We have used a new technology, fluorescent imaging, to examine Song Dynasty ceramics, renowned for their exquisite craftsmanship and unique crackle patterns. By capturing high-resolution images of microstructural features and crackle networks that are illuminated by specific wavelengths of light, we have been able to discern differences that seem to distinguish between products of the Northern and Southern Song dynasty periods; these can be further divided by the patterns into five major types of Ge-like ware. Fluorescence technology thus offers a relatively simple, inexpensive and non-invasive method for the characterization and study of ancient ceramic vessels. In addition, analysis of the emitted fluorescence provides insights into the composition and distribution of glaze materials that are not revealed by other methods, deepening our understanding of historical craftsmanship and technological innovation.

Due to their remarkable diversity and rapid evolution, conotoxins—peptide toxins from predatory marine cone snails—provide a powerful system for exploring how gene diversification may contribute to the development of lineage-specific adaptations. We previously demonstrated that 2-loop Tau conotoxins represent an evolutionary innovation associated with mollusk-hunting behaviors in cone snails. Here, we investigate the evolutionary history of these toxins as a model to understand the mechanism of ancestral gene neofunctionalization, which may have contributed to the emergence of mollusk-hunting in cone snails. Using ancestral sequence reconstruction, we present a model in which ancestral T-superfamily conotoxins neofunctionalized into the 2-loop Tau conotoxins. Predicted ancestral sequences reveal an intermediate structure between the classic T-superfamily conotoxins and the derived 2-loop Tau forms. Notably, these ancestral intermediates acquired a new cysteine scaffold that facilitated a structural transition from a globular to a ribbon fold. This conformational shift was followed by sequence-level changes that presumably enhanced activity against molecular targets in mollusks. We propose that the emergence of 2-loop Tau conotoxins may have been one factor that contributed to the emergence of molluscivory, providing insight into how gene innovation may underlie ecological diversification.

The marine biodiversity of the Philippines is rich, vast and distinctive making it challenging to design an effective program for systematic scientific investigation. Most studies carried out are either broad surveys, or at the other extreme, highly reductionist studies. The focus of the present study is the specimens in the Superfamily Conoidea collected by a collection trip organized by The Museum of Natural History, Paris (the “Aurora 2007 expedition”). These specimens comprise a biodiverse lineage of cone snails; we focus on the subgenus Phasmoconus, (genus Conus). There were 10 different morphospecies recovered at the site; 5 were previously reported from the Philippines. Two specimens tentatively assigned to Phasmoconus are species not previously documented from the Philippine archipelago (Conus c.f. gabryae and Conus c.f. grangeri). Two of the forms collected: Conus glorialita and Conus tayabasensis, could not be assigned to any previously named taxa in the literature and appear to be undescribed; these new species are described in this article. The most remarkable discovery was Conus (Phasmoconus) balerensis, a new species collected during this expedition. Over 200 specimens of this species were collected; this was by far the most abundant Conus species occurring over a wide stratigraphic range. In contrast most Phasmoconus specimens collected had a fairly narrow depth distribution. At present, Conus balerensis has only been found in deep waters off Aurora. The large fraction of unnamed species and new locality records for Phasmoconus recovered during the expedition demonstrate that even for well-studied lineages, a significant fraction of Philippine marine biodiversity remains poorly defined.