Standing deadwood is an important structural component of forest ecosystems. Its occurrence and dynamics influence both carbon fluxes and the availability of habitats for many species. However, deadwood is greatly reduced in managed, and even in many currently unmanaged temperate forests in Europe. To date, few studies have examined how environmental factors, forest management and changing climate affect the availability of standing deadwood and its dynamics. Data from five periods of the Austrian National Forest Inventory (1981–2009) were used to (I) analyse standing deadwood volume in relation to living volume stock, elevation, eco‐region, forest type, ownership and management intensity, (II) investigate the influence of forest ownership and management intensity on snag persistence and (III) define drivers of standing deadwood volume loss for seven tree genera (Abies, Alnus, Fagus, Larix, Picea, Pinus and Quercus) using tree‐related, site‐related and climate‐related variables, and predict volume loss under two climate change scenarios. Standing deadwood volume was mainly determined by living volume stock and elevation, resulting in different distributions between eco‐regions. While forest type and management intensity influenced standing deadwood volume only slightly, the latter exhibited a significant effect on persistence. Snag persistence was shorter in intensively managed forests than in extensively managed forests and shorter in private than in public forests. Standing deadwood volume loss was driven by a combination of diameter at breast height, elevation, as well as temperature, precipitation and relative humidity. Volume loss under climate change predictions revealed constant rates for moderate climate change (RCP2.6) by the end of the 21st century. Under severe climate change conditions (RCP8.5), volume loss increased for most tree genera, with Quercus, Alnus and Picea showing different predictions depending on the model used as the baseline scenario. We observed trends towards faster volume loss at higher temperatures and lower elevations and slower volume loss at high precipitation levels. The tree genera most susceptible to climate change were Pinus and Fagus, while Abies was least susceptible. Synthesis and applications. We recommend to protect standing dead trees from regular harvesting to ensure the full decomposition process. The consequences for decomposition‐dependent species must be taken into account to evaluate the influences of management and climate change on standing deadwood dynamics.

Context: Ecological connectivity is key to mitigating global change impacts such as isolation and climate change effects on populations, especially in historically modified biomes such as European forests. The term connectivity is widely used in conservation, but the multiple methods for measuring it, as well as the scales and objects of study to which it can be applied, make it difficult to understand and compare research results. Objectives: Our aim was to enhance the understanding of connectivity studies in European forests to inform conservation efforts, guide future research, and identify potential knowledge gaps, through a systematic review of connectivity studies in European forests. Methods: We did a systematic review on the literature of connectivity studies in European forests. We classified the studies according to the methods used. Then, we extracted information on study characteristics and context relevant for our purpose. Results: Our literature search identified 142 relevant articles, more than half of these studied connectivity through structural measures (based only on landscape attributes). The three most used measures were area-based methods, Euclidean distances, and spatial indices (structural), followed by species and graph theory-based models (functional measures, including species data). Most studies focused on large Western European countries, and birds and mammals as focal taxa. Generally, functional measures were more frequent in publications that had the study of connectivity as a primary objective. Conclusions: Research priorities and recommendations to guide future studies were identified such as the inclusion of structural and functional measures to bridge the gap between approaches, retaining the benefits of both and helping to uncover relationships between them; and as the need to address temporal connectivity, especially for less mobile species.

Woody and non-woody plant species conservation is one of the ecosystem services provided by agroforestry (AF) systems across the agricultural landscapes. Little attention has been paid to assessing the conservation of plant diversity in AF systems. This study was, thus, aimed at investigating plant species diversity, structure, and composition of three AF systems in Gedeo zone of south-eastern rift–valley agricultural landscape of Ethiopia. The study was conducted in three agroforestry systems, namely, enset based, coffee–enset based (C–E based AF), and coffee–fruit trees–enset based (C–Ft–E based AF) agroforestry systems. Twenty farms representative of each AF system were randomly selected, and inventory of the floristic diversity was employed in a 10 m × 10 m sample plot per farm. A total of 52 perennial woody and non-woody plant species belonging to 30 families were recorded. Of all species identified, 33 (63.5%) were native, of which two species, namely Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Baker and Erythrina brucei Schweinf., were registered as endemic. The highest proportion of native species was recorded in enset based AF (93.3%), and the least were in C–Ft–E based AF (59%). According to the IUCN Red List and local criteria, 13 species were recorded as being of interest for conservation in all AF systems. The woody species Prunus africana was identified as both vulnerable by IUCN Red List and rare for 25% of species that least occur. The Shannon diversity index and richness showed that C–Ft–E based AF systems were significantly different from the two remaining AF systems. However, the species abundance and evenness did not show significant differences between the three AF systems. In general, retaining such numbers of woody and non-woody perennial plant species richness under the AF systems of the present study underlines their potential for biodiversity conservation.

Habitat degradation and fragmentation are two of the main drivers for biodiversity loss. To mitigate the negative impact of fragmentation in forests, conservation targets are increasingly addressing connectivity to facilitate the independent movement of species between habitat fragments to ensure genetic diversity and adaptation to climate change. In this article, we present a novel approach to identifying and prioritizing stepping stones for preserving connectivity based on national and regional biodiversity data for Austrian forest ecosystems. Our study identified forest areas where conservation measures should be taken to ensure future habitat connectivity by combining four indicator values with different requirements of a stepping stone habitat into a prioritization value. The four compounded indicators are: (i) the Protect Value , which includes distances to patches of protected areas with restricted management for the undisturbed development of retention areas, (ii) the Connect Value , which combines datasets of designated habitat corridors and connectivity areas in Austria based on landscape models and expert validation, (iii) the Species Value identifying species‐rich areas, and (iv) the Habitat Value identifying biotopes of high ecological value, key biodiversity areas, and sites of favorable protection status. Nonparametric tests revealed significant differences in prioritization value among the ecoregions of Austria and therefore encourage the consideration of stepping stone prioritization at local and regional context. Building upon the insights from this case study on Austrian forest ecosystems, we developed a robust framework derived from our methodology. This framework is designed to facilitate future implementations in diverse study regions, accounting for factors beyond connectivity crucial for identifying high value stepping stone habitats. We encourage adaptation of this framework to local data availability, species requirements, and local conditions. The compiled framework provides decision support for managers and conservationists for prioritizing areas to conserve and improve connectivity of forest habitats. However, it does not substitute on‐the‐ground field assessments of habitat quality and measures of functional connectivity.

Forest ecosystems play a fundamental role in mitigating global environmental changes. The development of environmentally sound behavior, and inter- and intragenerational equity can help counteract these global changes. One type of formal and non-formal environmental education is forest education, which aims to promote the achievement of sustainable development in forest-related ecosystems. We conducted an empirical study among forest educators in Austria, using a mixed-method approach, to investigate the potential of forest education to promote education for environmental citizenship. Our findings suggest that forest education and encounters with nature can lead to increased self-responsibility and contribute to critically reflect experience-based changes in behaviour. In conclusion, forest education is a useful tool for environmental citizenship education that contributes to improved understanding of forest ecosystems and non-anthropocentric perspectives for future development. However, forest education lacks funding, integration into formal education curricula, and the harmonization of framework conditions in non-formal education.

Ecological connectivity within forest ecosystems is a cornerstone of preserving biodiversity and enhancing ecosystem resilience. The interplay between ecological conditions, historical influences, and socioeconomic factors shapes the connectivity of forest landscapes, and the decisions made by policymakers and stakeholders entail consequences for ecosystem health and sustainability. The following comprehensive exploration delves into the integration of ecological connectivity concepts in national and international policies. International policies highlight the importance of connectivity for biodiversity protection. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework emphasise the role of connectivity in halting biodiversity loss and ensuring the success of restoration efforts. Other conventions such as Ramsar and World Heritage contribute to the preservation of crucial habitats. National and transnational strategies underline the growing emphasis on ecological connectivity as a tool for linking biodiversity-rich areas. Policies across the globe reflect the global recognition of the importance of connectivity. Restoring connectivity involves a range of strategies from revitalising urban forests to preserving rural landscapes and beyond, all while considering the unique needs of diverse ecosystems. Conservation efforts to enhance connectivity include expanding protected regions, creating wildlife corridors, providing incentives for forest management, and the use of various indicators. Local strategies are key in this regard, with policymakers considering regional biodiversity data and updating connectivity models to identify potential corridors and forest patches for species movement. Recommendations include policy integration, transnational cooperation, interdisciplinary collaboration, and technological integration. Climate change mitigation policies highlight the importance of connectivity in landscapes altered by human activities, suggesting a multifaceted approach to ecosystem resilience in the face of climate change. In order to pave the way to a sustainable and resilient future for forests, it is essential to align global, national, and local initiatives and adopt a holistic approach to connectivity conservation.