The main objective of the research was to determine the long-term and short-term correlation between CO₂ emissions per capita, energy consumption per capita, and the level of economic growth of GDP per capita in the V4 countries. These countries, being EU members since 2004 and previously being in the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union, have introduced a number of economic reforms, but in the area of climate protection, including decarbonization, they struggle with many problems, as their economies are largely dependent on energy from non-renewable resources. The results of the research are varied, but the authors confirmed, especially in the case of Poland, the long-term correlations between the studied variables. In the short term, such interdependencies also occurred, especially between the level of energy consumption per capita and the level of CO₂ emissions.

This study examines the cointegration and short- and long-run causal relationships between economic growth and CO₂ emissions, fuel consumption and the amount of freight transported by road transport in the Visegrad Group countries between 1990 and 2019. The autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bound testing methodology was used to develop the results for each tested dependent variable. The results confirmed a long-run cointegration between economic growth and fuel consumption by road transport in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In addition, a long-run relationship between economic growth and freight volume and CO₂ emissions by transport was demonstrated for Slovakia. For Poland, there was only a long-run relationship between energy consumption by road freight transport and CO₂ emissions. In the short run, relationships were shown between the volume of freight transported by the road freight transport sector and CO₂ emissions for Hungary and Poland. Short-run relationships between economic growth and the volume of freight transported in Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary are also interesting observations. The obtained results expand the information resources needed to make decisions on the direction of change in road transport. Additionally, the results can be used to prepare a proper environmental policy for road freight transport within the framework of the European Green Deal.

The primary objective of this study is to examine the relationships between energy consumption in agriculture from renewable and non-renewable sources and the production levels in the agricultural sector across European Union countries. Additionally, this study aims to identify countries that differ in the development of their agricultural sector in terms of environmental care and to highlight the causes and consequences of these identified disparities. The classification of countries was conducted using the Principal Component Analysis method and a biplot. Panel data for the period 2000–2022, a VAR model, the impulse response function (IRF), and causality tests were used for this study. The results indicate two distinct groups of countries that significantly differ in adopting green agricultural practices. Only seven EU countries stand out for sustainable agriculture with low pesticide use, a significant share of organic farms, and high use of renewable energy in agriculture. Energy consumption affects agricultural production differently in the two groups of countries studied: in countries with sustainable agriculture, an increase in renewable energy consumption translates into a positive increase in agricultural production. On the other hand, an increase in non-renewable energy consumption shows a dampening effect on agricultural production growth, especially in countries with less sustainable agriculture. The results of this study highlight the need to promote renewable energy development in agriculture and raise awareness about the adverse environmental effects of intensive agriculture while emphasising the positive impact of organic agriculture on agricultural production.

This study presents empirical results regarding the relationships between renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, CO₂ emissions, and the GDP within the Visegrád Group (V4) countries. Using FMOLS/DOLS and ARDL approaches, along with causality tests based on the Toda–Yamamoto method, this study explores these relationships at a regional level. The study fills the research gaps for a comprehensive analysis of the indicated relationships in the V4 countries by using both individual and panel models. The findings indicate that renewable energy has a small positive impact on long-term economic growth, with non-renewable energy having a more significant effect. Moreover, CO₂ emissions have a negative impact on economic growth, suggesting an ongoing reliance on non-renewable energy sources and a burden on economic expansion. At an individual country level, the effects vary. Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary exhibit a negative relationship between CO₂ emissions and economic growth. Energy sources also differ in regards to impact: in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia, non-renewable energy significantly affects economic growth, while in Hungary, renewable energy plays a more substantial role. Causality tests reveal a causal relationship between CO₂ emissions and economic growth in the Czech Republic and Poland, suggesting that CO₂ emissions significantly influence economic expansion. In terms of energy production, renewable energy is causally related to economic growth in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. All countries demonstrate significant causality between non-renewable energy and economic growth. Additionally, a relationship between renewable energy and CO₂ emissions is confirmed in Poland.

The key goal of this research was to figure out the short and long run relationship between environmental degradation caused by carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and energy consumption, the level of GDP economic growth, and urbanization in the Visegrad Region countries (V4). The study used data from the years 1996–2020. In the methodological area, ARDL bound test, and ARDL and ECM models were used to determine the directions and strength of interdependence. The results show that in the case of some V4 countries (Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary), changes in the urbanization rate affect CO₂ emissions. Moreover, it was confirmed that the phenomenon of urbanization influences the enhanced energy consumption in the studied countries. In the case of individual countries, these relationships were varied, both unidirectional and bidirectional. Their nature was also varied—there were both long and short-term relationships. These findings suggest that the V4 countries should increase renewable and ecological energy sources. It is also recommended to enhancement energy savings in the areas of both individual and industrial consumption by promoting low-emission solutions. This should be done while considering changes in urbanization.

This study aims to provide empirical evidence on whether using renewable and non-renewable energy, CO₂ emissions, and the resulting changes in temperature and precipitation can alter cereal yields in European Union countries. To this end, a panel data set covering 1992–2021 has been used to analyse the impact of climate change and economic factors on cereal production in European Union countries. The study employed various analytical techniques to better understand the impact of climate change and economic factors on cereal crop yields. These included using annual average temperature and rainfall to measure climate change, energy consumption, and economic growth to analyse the economic aspects. To achieve the objective, feasible generalised least squares (FGLS) models with robust standard errors and bootstrap and a quantile regression (QR) model with marginal analysis were employed. The Westerlund cointegration test confirmed the presence of cointegration between cereal production and climate variables, economic growth, and energy consumption. The results indicate that increases in temperature and precipitation may contribute to increased cereal production in European Union countries. In contrast, energy consumption, including renewable energy and CO₂ emissions, may have a nonlinear effect on cereal production. Quantile regression analysis suggests climate change may impact crop yields most in countries with low and moderate cereal production per hectare. Increased CO₂ emissions may increase yields in the initial period, but excessive CO₂ may negatively impact cereal production in the long term. It would be advisable for countries with low and moderate crop productivity to consider implementing technological advances and combating global warming by modernising cultivation methods and making greater use of renewable energy sources.