This study attempts to investigate how four groups of participants at Tra Vinh University perceive oral fluency. This study is conducted in the hope to obtain more perceptions of oral fluency so future rubrics can be developed based on such perceptions. The study used a set of items stating what oral fluency should be like, which was developed based on the Qualitative aspects of spoken language proposed by the Council of Europe (2019). To test if the items were accepted, the study invited 33 senior English-majored students, 20 English teachers with a BA, 22 English teachers with an MA, and 10 English teachers with a doctorate degree for the study. A five-point Likert scale questionnaire consisting of 18 closed-ended questions and an open-ended question was employed to collect the participants’ perceptions of oral fluency. The results showed that the participants with an MA and the participants with a doctorate degree tend to agree more with the items in the questionnaire while the other groups slightly agreed with most of the items. Furthermore, many of the participants provided the study with their own ideas about oral fluency, which were finally synthesized. Some limitations and recommendations of the study were also included.

This study examined the impact of school leadership on teacher autonomy (TA), with teacher professional collaboration (TPC) and teacher self-efficacy (TSE) playing the mediating role. Distributed leadership (DL) and instructional leadership (IL) are the most employed leadership styles. Data collected from teachers and principals nested within schools in Vietnam TALIS 2018 were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling to explore the relationships between the above variables (DL with TPC, TSE, TA; IL with TPC, TSE, TA; TPC with TA; TSE with TA; TPC with TSE). The findings showed that DL directly influenced TA and indirectly affected TA through TSE. However, IL had no direct impact on TA but affected it through TSE. While IL did not affect TPC, DL did. TPC had no direct impact on TA and so did not mediate the relationship of TA with DL and IL. The results also uncovered that TPC directly impacted TSE. These results suggest that DL and TSE play crucial roles in fostering an autonomous teaching environment, while IL and TPC did not effectively promote TA. However, TALIS survey iterations may want to include cultural items to help interpret research results better. Such adjustments can enhance TALIS’ relevance in diverse cultural contexts and results, providing policymakers with more contextualized insights to improve TA and school professional development.

Taiwan’s government launched the Bilingual 2030 policy to create a bilingual nation by 2030. The aim is to improve global mobility by promoting English and Mandarin Chinese proficiency. This study explores how bilingual teaching job demands—work pressure, cognitive demands, and emotional demands—and job resources impact teacher self-efficacy under this policy. Quantitative data collected from 542 content teachers in lower secondary schools were analyzed using structural equation modelling (SEM). The results showed no effects on teacher self-efficacy related to work pressure and emotional demands. However, cognitive demands harmed teacher self-efficacy. Resources focusing on teacher autonomy and professional development opportunities are significantly and positively related to teacher self-efficacy. Considering the results, the Bilingual 2030 initiatives should focus on strategies to alleviate cognitive load and increase job resources to support teachers better in each school. This result also suggests that it is crucial to address teachers’ specific needs, and from there, schools may take the initiative to address those needs promptly and effectively. Implications and practical actions of the study were presented for future reference.

This bibliometric review explores global research trends in bilingual education over the past four decades (1983–2023), using co-citation analysis, bibliographic coupling, and keyword co-occurrence. An analysis of 1,716 articles indexed in the Web of Science identifies key topics, influential scholars, and emerging research frontiers. In the review, significant themes include promoting bilingualism, implementing bilingual education policies, translanguaging, Content-Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), and English-medium instruction (EMI). The results also revealed that culturally responsive pedagogies and peer support were successful approaches in the program. Bilingual instruction is additionally becoming more well-known in Asian nations, centring on CLIL and EMI approaches, which have benefits and challenges. Besides, the review clarifies that inclusive bilingual education is not just about bringing students’ linguistic and cultural background into the curriculum but also about a need to focus on approaches, such as using Strategic and Interactive Writing Guide methodology to help deaf and hard-of-hearing students perform better in Sign Bilingual Education. It may be helpful for scholars of interest to refer to bilingual education models/approaches based on these results.