3D-printing of cementitious materials is an innovative construction approach with which building elements can be constructed without the use of formwork. Despite potential benefits in the construction industry, it introduces various engineering challenges from the material point of view. This paper reviews the properties of extrusion-based 3D-printed cementitious materials in both fresh and hardened states. Four main properties of fresh-state printing materials are addressed: flowability, extrudability, buildability, and open time, along with hardened properties, including density, compressive strength, flexural strength, tensile bond strength, shrinkage, and cracking. Experimental testing and effective factors of each property are covered, and a mix design procedure is proposed. The main objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the recent development in 3D-printing of cementitious materials and to identify the research gaps that need further investigation.

This state of the art review paper aims to discuss the results of a literature survey on possible ways to reinforce printed concrete based on existing reinforcement strategies. Just as conventional concrete, for 3D printed concrete to be suitable for large-scale construction, reinforcement is needed to increase the tensile capacity of concrete members and reduce temperature and shrinkage cracking. Despite efforts that are currently underway, the development of proper reinforcement suitable for printed concrete is still very active on the research agenda. As an initial step for designing suitable reinforcement for printed concrete, the existing reinforcement methods for printed concrete as well as conventional cast concrete from the literature are reviewed and summarized. Through the preliminary evaluation of the suitability and effectiveness of various reinforcement methods, guidelines are proposed to better understand possible solutions to reinforce printed concrete and inspire new practical ideas to fill the current technology void. The conclusions also include the possible improvements of the existing reinforcement methods to be considered in future applications.

Incorporating reinforcement in practical 3D-printed concrete (3DPC) construction is a challenge since conventional methods such as current rebar or mesh placement methods are not designed for automated, layer-by-layer construction. This chapter reviews reinforcement strategies used in recent industry projects and discusses innovative approaches proposed in research publications. Case studies from companies demonstrate techniques for the incorporation of rebars, meshes, fibers, and post-tensioning systems. Their applications reveal both strengths, such as improved structural capacity, and weaknesses, including slow installation, dependence on manual labor, and limited adaptability to complex geometries. These challenges show that traditional methods are not fully compatible with 3DPC, creating the need for alternatives better suited for automation. Recent research has introduced options such as fiber-reinforced mixtures, automated rebar and mesh placement, and steel welding and printing, among others. Although many remain experimental, they indicate promising directions for the use of reinforcement in 3DPC. The chapter concludes that future progress will depend on integrating hybrid strategies, robotic automation, and interdisciplinary expertise to develop scalable methods that combine efficiency with structural reliability, enabling broader adoption of 3DPC in construction practice.