The genus Macavirus, subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae, comprises ungulate viruses that infect domestic and wild ruminants and swine. They cause asymptomatic latent infections in reservoir hosts and malignant catarrhal fever in susceptible species. Lung, spleen, bronchial lymph node, and tongue were collected from 448 cattle (348 necropsied, 100 slaughtered) in Switzerland, United Kingdom, Finland, Belgium, and Germany to determine their infection with bovine herpesvirus-6 (BoHV-6) and gammaherpesviruses of other ruminants, i.e., ovine herpesvirus-1 and -2, caprine herpesvirus-2, and bison lymphotropic herpesvirus, using quantitative PCR. Only BoHV-6 was detected, with an overall frequency of 32%, ranging between 22% and 42% in the different countries. Infection was detected across all ages, from one day after birth, and was positively correlated with age. There was no evidence of an association with specific disease processes. In positive animals, BoHV-6 was detected in all organs with high frequency, consistently in the lungs or spleen. Viral loads varied substantially. In BoHV-6-positive gravid cows, organs of fetuses tested negative for infection, indicating that the virus is not vertically transmitted. Our results confirm previous data indicating that BoHV-6 is a commensal of domestic cattle not associated with disease processes and confirm that infections with other macaviruses are rare and sporadic.

Arthropod-borne infections, known as vector-borne diseases, are a significant threat to both humans and animals. These diseases are transmitted to humans and animals through the bites of infected arthropods. In the last half century, there have been a number of unexpected viral outbreaks in Middle Eastern countries. Recently, Iraq has witnessed an outbreak of the Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever virus with high morbidity and mortality rates in humans. However, very little is known about the prevalence and distribution of CCHFV in Iraq, and therefore, it is impossible to quantify the risk of infection. CCHFV is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected ticks. However, transmission can also occur through contact with the blood or tissues of infected animals during slaughter or through contact with contaminated objects or surfaces. Accidental crushing of infected ticks can also release the virus and lead to transmission. In addition, healthcare workers and family members caring for infected individuals are at risk of infection through exposure to contaminated body fluids and aerosols. There are still many unknowns about the role that vertebrates play in the upkeep and spread of CCHFV. Critical information for our comprehension of CCHFV ecology may be gleaned through experimental studies conducted on wild animals and cattle. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to draw attention to current studies and publications that shed light on the intricate dynamic between CCHFV, vector, and host and demonstrate how biosurveillance at each stage aids in our knowledge of disease transmission, risk, and future research prospects.

Background: Cephalopina titillator is one of the most important parasites, which infests the upper respiratory tract of camels leading to deteriorating health effects, substantial economic losses and even death. Aim: This study aimed was to detect the prevalence rate of C. titillator in slaughtered camels, determining its morphology using the electron microscope, and confirming its species by the molecular phylogeny. Methods: A total of 200 slaughtered camels at different areas in Al Muthanna province (Iraq) were inspected visually to collect the parasite samples that identified initially based on their morphological characteristics. To confirm the parasite species, molecular phylogeny was conducted targeting the COX1 gene. Results: An overall 19.5% of study camels were found infested with C. tittlator. Based on light and electron microscopes, the larval stage of C. tittlator was shown numerous posterior spiracular pores, cephalo-pharyngeal skeleton, abdominal segments, spinulation in anterior ventral portion, no spines on final segment of abdomen, and rounded dorsal surface. Dorsoventrally, a slender and flattened shape with presence of 12 segments as well as widely separated antennal lobes and obligate mouth hooks were seen. Molecularly, all the tested samples were found positive by PCR. Additionally, some positive PCR products were sequenced, and reported in the NCBI-GenBank under the access numbers of OP218846, OP218847, and OP218845, OP218839, OP218840, OP218841, OP218842, OP218843, and OP218844. Sequence analysis revealed the obvious identity between the local isolates and the global NCBI-GenBank Iran isolate (MW136151.1). Conclusion: This study described precisely the morphology of C. titillator using the light and electron microscopes suggesting its role in appropriate identification and classification. Molecular examination demonstrated the importance of COX1 gene in identification of C. titillator and sequencing of the local isolates; however, additional molecular phylogenetic studies are needed to establish the evolutionary relationships among the oestrid group of insects with specialized habits and habitats.

The Capripoxvirus genus includes sheep pox virus (SPV), a contagious viral infection of small ruminants primarily affecting sheep. It is characterized by severe skin lesions, fever, diarrhea, difficulty breathing, pulmonary involvement, and death. This leads to enormous economic losses for sheep farmers. Recently, numerous cases of individual and multiple cases of SPV have been reported with failure of treatment and control strategies. This suggests that SPV may undergo genetic mutations affecting host immunity by blocking or inhibiting host immunity proteins more efficiently. Therefore, in this study, three host-immunity evasive viral genes, including soluble interferon-gamma receptor-like protein (IFN-γ), G-protein coupled chemokine receptor (GPCR), and inhibitory Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC class 2) were sequenced. To do this, 125 suspected cases were examined and then subjected to PCR technique, which revealed 40 SPV positive 32%. The sequence results of most local strains revealed high similarity to the local vaccine strain, and other strains originated from neighboring countries such as Saudi Arabia and Turkey. However, some strains show genetic diversity. Notably, the designed primers efficiently diagnose SPV and could be useful in viral quantification for future studies. This may also explain the efficiency of the vaccination protocol in Iraq. This may help to improve our understanding of SPV infection and its control.

EHV-2 is distributed in horses globally. It is clustered within gamma-herpesvirus subfamily and percavirus genus. EHV-2 infection has two phases: latent and lytic. In the later, EHV-2 mainly associated with respiratory and genital symptoms. However, in the quiescent phase of infection, EHV-2 stay dormant in the host till viral reactivation. Our previous study has showed that EHV-2 can be harboured by equine tendons, suggesting that leukocytes possibly carrying EHV-2 for the systemic dissemination. So far, numerous PCR protocols have been performed targeting the gB gene. However, this gene is heterogenic. Therefore, there is a need to develop a quantitative diagnostic approach to detect the quiescent EHV-2 strains. To do this, Taqman qPCR assay was developed to quantify the virus. This was performed by targeting a highly conserved gene known as DNA polymerase (DPOL) gene using constructed plasmid as a standard curve calibrator. The obtained results showed an infection frequency of 33% in which the EHV-2 load reached 6647 copies/100 ng DNA whereas the minimum load revealed as 2 copies/100 ng DNA. The median quantification was found as 141 copies/ 100 ng DNA. Establishment of a credited qPCR assay to quantify EHV-2 could be helpful in the control of the disease.

We hypothesized that increased expression of antiviral host factors at portals of viral entry may protect exposed tissues from the constant threat of invading pathogens. Comparative transcriptomic analysis identified the broad-acting restriction factor TRIM22 (TRIpartite Motif 22) to be among the most abundantly expressed antiviral host factors in the lung, a major portal of entry for many respiratory pathogens. This was surprising, as TRIM22 is currently considered to be an interferon stimulated gene (ISG) product that confers protection following the activation of pathogen-induced cytokine-mediated innate immune defences. Using human respiratory cell lines and the airways of rhesus macaques, we experimentally confirmed high levels of constitutive TRIM22 expression in the lung. In contrast, TRIM22 expression in many widely used transformed cell lines could only be observed following immune stimulation. Endogenous levels of TRIM22 in non-transformed cells were sufficient to restrict human and avian influenza A virus (IAV) infection by inhibiting the onset of viral transcription independently of cytokine-mediated innate immune defences. Thus, TRIM22 confers a pre-existing (intrinsic) tissue-specific immune barrier to IAV infection in the respiratory tract. We investigated whether the constitutive expression of TRIM22 was a characteristic shared by other ISGs in human lung tissue. Transcriptomic analysis identified a large group of ISGs and IAV immuno-regulatory host factors that were similarly enriched in the lung relative to other mucosal tissues, but whose expression was downregulated in transformed cell-lines. We identify common networks of immune gene downregulation which correlated with enhanced permissivity of transformed cells to initiate IAV replication. Our data highlight the importance of tissue-specific and cell-type dependent patterns of pre-existing immune gene expression in the intrinsic intracellular restriction of IAV; findings highly relevant to the immune regulation of many clinically important respiratory pathogens. Author Summary: The respiratory tract is a major portal of virus entry for many clinically important viruses, including seasonal and pandemic influenza A virus (IAV). We reasoned that cells within the respiratory tract might differentially express antiviral host factors to protect against the constant challenge of viral infection. We found the broad-acting antiviral protein TRIM22, conventionally regarded as an interferon stimulated gene (ISG) product upregulated in response to virus infection, to be constitutively expressed to high levels in the lung. We found that constitutive expression of TRIM22 restricted the initiation of human and avian IAV infection independently of cytokine-mediated innate immune defences. We identified pre-existing tissue-specific and cell-type dependent patterns of constitutive immune gene expression that strongly correlated with enhanced resistance to IAV replication from the outset of infection. Importantly, we show that these constitutive patterns of immune gene expression are lost or downregulated in many transformed cell lines widely used for respiratory virus research. Our data highlight the importance of pre-existing tissue-specific and cell-type dependent patterns of constitutive antiviral gene expression in the intracellular restriction of respiratory viral pathogens not captured in conventional cell culture model systems of infection.