Cancer/testis antigens (CTAs) are named based on their expression pattern that is restricted in a number of normal and abnormal tissues. Tumor cells frequently express antigens whose expression is typically restricted to germ cells. Their unique expression pattern is guaranteed by precise epigenetic regulatory mechanisms. Because of their tumor-limited, high immunogenicity, and biased expression, discovery of these molecules provides unprecedented opportunities for further research and clinical development in the field of cancer diagnosis and immunotherapy. Evolving evidence reveals that a number of CTAs stimulate epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) and generation of cancer stem-like cells, intensifying metastasis, invasion, and tumorigenesis. Based on these features, CTAs attract attention to be considered as ideal targets for developing several clinical trials, many of them concentrating on CTA vaccine therapy. According to recent practical clinical interest, more characterizations of CTA regulation are identified. CTA expression has been demonstrated in a variety of human cancer tissues, and some of them have been found to elicit humoral and/or cellular immune responses in cancer patients. CTAs are brilliant targets for anticancer drug discovery, targeted tumor therapy, and diagnostic biomarkers, furthermore, valued genes in the study of immunotherapy, promoting tumorigenesis, and malignant progression. This review outlines and categorizes our current understanding of the complex and biased process of CTAs mRNA and protein expression in cancer, and supplies the most recent information on their regulation and function. Besides, a concise synopsis of the major clinical trials involving CTAs, as therapeutic avenues, is discussed. Abbreviations: AIRE: autoimmune regulator; cAMP: cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate; CEA: carcinoembryonic antigen; CML: chronic myeloid leukemia; CREB: cyclicamp response element binding; CSCs: cancer stem cells; CTAs: cancer/testis antigens; CTL: cytotoxic T lymphocyte; DCs: dendritic cells; EMT: epithelial–mesenchymal transition; ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase; ESCC: esophageal squamous cell carcinoma; ETS: E26 transformation-specific; His: histidine; HLA: human leukocyte antigen; HNSCC: head and neck squamous cell carcinoma; IFN-γ: interferon-γ; IHC: Immunohistochemistry; IL-7: Interleukin7; MHC: major histocompatibility complex; MMP2: matrix metalloproteinase 2; mTECs: medullary thymus epithelial cells; MUC1: mucin 1; NSCLC: non-small cell lung cancer; PRAME: preferentially expressed antigen in melanoma; RDA: representational difference analysis; SEREX: serological analysis of cDNA expression; SSX: synovial sarcoma X chromosome; TAAs: tumor-associated antigens; TCR: T-cell receptor; TCGA: The Cancer Genome Atlas; TGF-β: transforming growth factor-β.

Roles of Oxidative Stress in the Development and Progression of Breast Cancer Oxidative stress;breast cancer;free radicals;reactive oxygen species (ROS); Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance in the redox status of the body. In such a state, increase of free radicals in the body can lead to tissue damage. One of the most important species of free radicals is reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by various metabolic pathways, including aerobic metabolism in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. It plays a critical role in the initiation and progression of various types of cancers. ROS affects different signaling pathways, including growth factors and mitogenic pathways, and controls many cellular processes, including cell proliferation, and thus stimulates the uncontrolled growth of cells which encourages the development of tumors and begins the process of carcinogenesis. Increased oxidative stress caused by reactive species can reduce the body's antioxidant defense against angiogenesis and metastasis in cancer cells. These processes are main factors in the development of cancer. Bimolecular reactions cause free radicals in which create such compounds as malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydroxyguanosine. These substances can be used as indicators of cancer. In this review, free radicals as oxidizing agents, antioxidants as the immune system, and the role of oxidative stress in cancer, particularly breast cancer, have been investigated in the hope that better identification of the factors involved in the occurrence and spread of cancer will improve the identification of treatment goals.

Homozygosity mapping is a powerful method for identifying mutations in patients with recessive conditions, especially in consanguineous families or isolated populations. Historically, it has been used in conjunction with genotypes from highly polymorphic markers, such as DNA microsatellites or common SNPs. Traditional software performs rather poorly with data from Whole Exome Sequencing (WES) and Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS), which are now extensively used in medical genetics. We develop AutoMap, a tool that is both web-based or downloadable, to allow performing homozygosity mapping directly on VCF (Variant Call Format) calls from WES or WGS projects. Following a training step on WES data from 26 consanguineous families and a validation procedure on a matched cohort, our method shows higher overall performances when compared with eight existing tools. Most importantly, when tested on real cases with negative molecular diagnosis from an internal set, AutoMap detects three gene-disease and multiple variant-disease associations that were previously unrecognized, projecting clear benefits for both molecular diagnosis and research activities in medical genetics.