The emphasis of this review is on the use and potential of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) as biological control agents in sustainable food production across a wide range of agricultural and other commodities. To aid with the understanding of the potential of EPNs in sustainable food production, this review also provides overviews on EPN biology and ecology, mass production and application technology, and interactions with other management tools. First discovered in the 1920s, their commercialization as biopesticides in the 1980s was accompanied and followed by an exponential growth in research on their application, biology, and ecology, followed by a further expansion in more basic research areas since the mid-2000s. This review summarizes significant progress made in the research and application of EPN in insect pest management in important food crops including orchards, small fruit, maize, vegetables, tuber crops, greenhouses, and mushrooms. Significant factors affecting the success of EPN commercialization are also discussed. A growing interest in alternatives to synthetic insecticides and in organic agriculture opens opportunities for EPNs, but EPNs will need to be further improved with respect to efficacy, reduced costs, and ease of use. Moreover, their potential to recycle in host populations beckons to be further exploited for long term pest suppression.

The annual bluegrass weevil (ABW), Listronotus maculicollis Kirby (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is the most damaging golf course insect pest in eastern North America. Heavy reliance on synthetic insecticides against this pest has led to widespread problems in controlling ABW with pyrethroid resistance already reported from populations in southern New England. This study evaluated the degree and scope of ABW resistance, determined existing cross-resistance patterns, and confirmed laboratory findings under greenhouse conditions. The susceptibility of 10 ABW populations to insecticides of different chemical classes was assessed in topical, feeding, and greenhouse assays. The level of susceptibility to pyrethroids varied significantly among populations (LD₅₀s ranging 2.4–819.1 ng per insect for bifenthrin and 1.1–362.7 ng for λ-cyhalothrin in the topical assay). Three populations were relatively susceptible to pyrethroids, and seven populations had moderate to high resistance levels (RR₅₀ for bifenthrin ranging 30.5–343.1). The toxicity of chlorpyrifos (RR₅₀s ranging 3.3–15.3), spinosad (RR₅₀s 2.4–7.7), clothianidin (RR₅₀s 4.2–9.7), and indoxacarb (RR₅₀s 2.8–9.7) was decreased for the pyrethroid-resistant populations. Toxicity data for bifenthrin and chlorpyrifos obtained under more realistic greenhouse conditions confirmed laboratory observations, indicating that the topical assay is an accurate method of detection and measurement of resistance level. The current study expanded the previously known geographic range of ABW pyrethroid resistance to include the New York metropolitan area, New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania and provided clear evidence of cross-resistance not only within the pyrethroid class but also to several other chemical classes.

Listronotus maculicollis Kirby is a highly destructive pest of low mown, cool-season turfgrasses in the northeastern United States and Canada. Behavi

New legislation by governments and municipal authorities for the application of synthetic pesticides, including insecticides on turfgrass is currently changing the management of insect pests. Since the late 1990s, societal concerns over perceived health risks and environmental hazards of pesticides have led to tighter restrictions on insecticide use. In Canada, two provinces have banned the use of pesticides for cosmetic purposes and more than 152 municipalities have adopted some form of bylaw restricting or banning the use of landscape pesticides. Turfgrass managers are facing increasing constraints regarding the use of synthetic pesticides and only a few effective biological control agents are currently available on the markets to control turfgrass insects. Here we review the different pathogens that show potential for control and commercial use against turfgrass insect pests in North America. Even though numerous studies have shown the virulence of various pathogens against turfgrass insect pests, few of these pathogens are widely used. Limiting factors for their adoption include a narrow host range and, compared to synthetic insecticides, lower consistency, higher costs, and/or shorter shelf-life. However, new pesticide regulations, particularly in Canada, should lead to better opportunities for the biological control industry in turfgrass markets.

The annual bluegrass weevil, Listronotus maculicollis Kirby (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is a major pest of golf course turf in eastern North America with widespread insecticide resistance. This study examined the effect of pyrethroid-resistance level on the efficacy of adulticides and larvicides from different insecticide classes commonly used for L. maculicollis management through greenhouse and field studies. The tested populations had previously been determined to be susceptible, moderately resistant, resistant, and highly resistant to the pyrethroid bifenthrin. Targeting adults, efficacy was significantly reduced for bifenthrin against the highly resistant population and for the spinosyn spinosad and the oxadizine indoxacarb against the resistant and highly resistant populations. Efficacy of the organophosphate chlorpyrifos was not significantly reduced. No adulticide provided significant control of resistant and highly resistant populations. Targeting larvae, the efficacy of spinosad and the anthranilic diamide cyantraniliprole was marginally reduced against the highly resistant population. Significant reductions in efficacy and no significant control were observed for indoxacarb against the highly resistant population and for the neonicotinoid clothianidin, the anthranilic diamide chlorantraniliprole, and the organophosphate trichlorfon against the resistant and highly resistant populations. Our findings lay the groundwork for management recommendations for populations with different resistance levels. Generally, synthetic insecticide applications should be minimized with greater use of larvicides supplemented with nonchemical control alternatives. The remaining effective larvicides should be rotated using cyantraniliprole, spinosad, and indoxacarb against resistant and cyantraniliprole and spinosad against highly resistant populations.