The environmental and biodiversity benefits of organic farming are widely recognized, but there is still controversy about the effects of organic production methods on the nutritional composition of food and human health. In the first part of this article therefore, we critically review the evidence that organic farming methods improve the nutritional quality of food crops. Moreover, we summarize our current understanding of how quality gains are linked to the implementation of the “innovations” introduced into conventional crop production during the intensification or “green revolution” of agriculture over the last 100 years. In the second part of the article, we critically review the evidence for the range of health benefits related to organic food consumption. Specifically, we describe and discuss the results from: (i) dietary intervention studies which have found that organic food consumption substantially reduces pesticide exposure in humans and affects feed intake, growth, hormone balances and immune system responsiveness in animal models; (ii) human cohort/epidemiological studies which have reported significant positive associations between organic food consumption and the lower incidence of a range of diseases including obesity, metabolic syndrome, cancer, hypospadias, pre-eclampsia, eczema and middle ear infections in infants; (iii) interactions and trade-offs between diet (e.g., whole-grain, fruit and vegetables and reduced red-meat consumption) and food types (organic versus conventional) concerning public health and future food security. The article also identifies knowledge gaps and highlights the need for (i) long-term, factorial field experiments to understand the relative effects of agronomic and pedoclimatic drivers on crop quality and safety, and (ii) clinical trials and additional human cohort studies to confirm the positive health outcomes linked to organic food consumption. The main conclusions from our review are that there is growing evidence that (i) agricultural intensification has resulted in a reduction in the nutritional quality of food and the sustainability of food production, and (ii) organic farming practices not only improve food quality and human health, but also food security. This is particularly true where current nutritional guidelines (increasing whole-grain, fruit and vegetable products, while reducing red-meat consumption) are implemented.

The southern African region is considered a “climate change hotspot” due to its projected substantially warmer and drier future. Climate change projections show that Botswana is warming at a faster pace than the global average. Therefore, there is a need to determine the likely impact of climate change-induced heat stress on dairy farming across ecological regions in the country. This study’s goal was to determine the recent and future spatially differentiated dispersion of heat stress conditions for dairy cattle across Botswana for the recent (2020), near-term (2030), mid-term (2050), and long-term (2070) under the high greenhouse gas emission scenario using the temperature humidity index. Results show an increase in the temperature humidity index ranging from 73.35 to 79.18 in 2020; 76.01 to 81.30 in 2030; 77.76 to 84.16 in 2050; and 79.60 to 85.84 in 2070. Areas in the north, i.e., Northwest, Northeast, and northern parts of the Central and Ghanzi Districts, are projected to record higher maximum temperatures, higher temperature humidity index, a greater number of heat stress days, and experience a higher degree of heat stress severity than those in the south of the country, i.e., Southern, Kgatleng, Kweneng, and Kgalagadi districts. Thus, the intensity of heat stress is projected to increase as you go further north in the country. The spatial variability of heat stress intensity implies that without the implementation of adaptation measures, the entire country could experience dairy farming challenges due to heat stress in the future, exacerbating the already dire dairy production environment in the country. Future policies and programs for developing the dairy sector in Botswana should thus factor in the heat stress challenge to attain the intended objectives.