The environmental and biodiversity benefits of organic farming are widely recognized, but there is still controversy about the effects of organic production methods on the nutritional composition of food and human health. In the first part of this article therefore, we critically review the evidence that organic farming methods improve the nutritional quality of food crops. Moreover, we summarize our current understanding of how quality gains are linked to the implementation of the “innovations” introduced into conventional crop production during the intensification or “green revolution” of agriculture over the last 100 years. In the second part of the article, we critically review the evidence for the range of health benefits related to organic food consumption. Specifically, we describe and discuss the results from: (i) dietary intervention studies which have found that organic food consumption substantially reduces pesticide exposure in humans and affects feed intake, growth, hormone balances and immune system responsiveness in animal models; (ii) human cohort/epidemiological studies which have reported significant positive associations between organic food consumption and the lower incidence of a range of diseases including obesity, metabolic syndrome, cancer, hypospadias, pre-eclampsia, eczema and middle ear infections in infants; (iii) interactions and trade-offs between diet (e.g., whole-grain, fruit and vegetables and reduced red-meat consumption) and food types (organic versus conventional) concerning public health and future food security. The article also identifies knowledge gaps and highlights the need for (i) long-term, factorial field experiments to understand the relative effects of agronomic and pedoclimatic drivers on crop quality and safety, and (ii) clinical trials and additional human cohort studies to confirm the positive health outcomes linked to organic food consumption. The main conclusions from our review are that there is growing evidence that (i) agricultural intensification has resulted in a reduction in the nutritional quality of food and the sustainability of food production, and (ii) organic farming practices not only improve food quality and human health, but also food security. This is particularly true where current nutritional guidelines (increasing whole-grain, fruit and vegetable products, while reducing red-meat consumption) are implemented.

There is still considerable controversy about the relative risk of mycotoxin exposure associated with the consumption of organic and conventional cereals. Using validated protocols, we carried out a systematic literature review and meta‐analyses of data on the incidence and concentrations of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium, Claviceps, Penicillium , and Aspergillus species in organic and conventional cereal grains/products. The standard weighted meta‐analysis of concentration data detected a significant effect of production system (organic vs. conventional) only for the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, with concentrations ∼50% higher in conventional than organic cereal grains/products ( p  < 0.0001). Weighted meta‐analyses of incidence data and unweighted meta‐analyses of concentration data also detected small, but significant effects of production system on the incidence and/or concentrations of T‐2/HT‐2 toxins, zearalenone, enniatin, beauvericin, ochratoxin A (OTA), and aflatoxins. Multilevel meta‐analyses identified climatic conditions, cereal species, study type, and analytical methods used as important confounding factors for the effects of production system. Overall, results from this study suggest that (i) Fusarium mycotoxin contamination decreased between the 1990s and 2020, (ii) contamination levels are similar in organic and conventional cereals used for human consumption, and (iii) maintaining OTA concentrations below the maximum contamination levels (3.0 μg/kg) set by the EU remains a major challenge.

Background: There is increasing evidence that the reliance on synthetic chemical pesticides and mineral fertilizers in agriculture has significant negative environmental and/or health impacts and poses a risk for future food security. Systematic reviews/meta-analyses showed that organic production systems, which omit the use of agrochemicals, produce crops with lower yields, but superior nutritional composition. However, the agronomic parameters responsible for differences in crop yields and nutritional quality are poorly understood. Methods: Here we report results for four field vegetable crops from the Nafferton Factorial Systems Comparison (NFSC) trial. This long-term factorial field experiment was designed to (i) identify effects of growing season/climatic variation, and contrasting rotational designs, crop protection protocols and fertilization regimes used in organic and conventional systems on crop health, yield and nutritional parameters and (ii) estimate the relative importance of climatic and agronomic drivers for crop health, yield and nutritionally relevant quality parameters. Quality parameters monitored in harvested products, included phenolic, glucosinolate, vitamin C, vitamin B₉, carotenoid, cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and glycoalkaloid concentrations. Results: Climatic conditions during the growing season were found to have a larger impact on crop yield and quality than the agronomic factors (pre-crop, crop protection, fertilization) studied. However, the (i) interactions between growing season with contrasting climatic conditions and agronomic factors identified by ANOVA for crop health, yield and quality parameters and (ii) the associations between the three climatic drivers (precipitation, temperature, radiation) and crop yield and quality parameters differed substantially between the four crop plant species. Among the agronomic factors, fertilization had a substantially larger impact compared with both pre-crop and crop protection. Specifically, crop yields were found to be significantly increased by the use of (i) conventional fertilization and crop protection methods in potato, (ii) conventional fertilization, but organic crop protection methods in cabbage, and (iii) conventional fertilization regimes in lettuce, while none of the agronomic factors had a significant effect on onion yields. When important crop pest and diseases were assessed, (i) conventional crop protection resulted in significantly lower late blight severity in potato, while (ii) organic crop protection resulted in lower bird damage and cabbage root fly (CRF) incidence in cabbages, and Sclerotinia incidence in lettuce and (iii) organic fertilization resulted in lower CRF and Sclerotinia incidence in cabbage and lettuce respectively. When concentrations of nutritionally relevant phytochemicals were compared, organic fertilization resulted in significantly higher phenolic concentrations in potato, cabbage and lettuce, higher glucosinolate and carotenoid concentrations in cabbage, higher vitamin C concentrations in potato and cabbage and higher vitamin B₉ concentrations in potato and lettuce—but lower concentrations of toxic glycoalkaloids in potato. Significant effects of crop protection protocols on phytochemical concentrations were only detected in cabbage with conventional crop protection resulting in higher glucosinolate and vitamin B₉ concentrations. When toxic metal concentrations were compared, organic fertilization resulted in significantly lower Cd concentrations in all four crops and lower Ni concentrations in potato, cabbage and onion. Significant effects of crop protection were only detected in cabbage, where organic crop protection resulted in lower Ni concentrations. Pb concentrations were not affected by any of the agronomic factors. The potential implications of results for improving (i) strategies to reduce the use of non-renewable resources and environmental impacts of vegetable production and (ii) the productivity of organic and other low-input vegetable production systems without compromising food quality are discussed. Conclusions: The study confirms that organic vegetable production protocols result in higher concentrations of phenolics and other nutritionally desirable phytochemicals, but lower concentrations of the toxic metals Cd and Ni in harvested products. It also demonstrates, for the first time, that this is primarily due to differences in fertilization regimes. The finding that in three of the four crops (cabbage, lettuce and onion) the application of synthetic chemical crop protection products had no measurable positive impact on crop health and yield should be considered in the context of the growing concern about health impacts of pesticide use in field vegetable crops.

Agronomic protocols (rotation, tillage, fertilization and crop protection) commonly used in organic and conventional crop production differ significantly and there is evidence that modern varieties developed for conventional high-input farming systems do not have the combination of traits required for optimum performance in organic farming systems. Specifically, there is evidence that prohibition on the use of water-soluble, mineral N, P and K fertilizers and synthetic pesticide inputs in organic farming results in a need to revise both breeding and selection protocols. For organic production systems, the focus needs to be on the following: (i) traits prioritized by organic farmers such as high nutrient use efficiency from organic fertilizer inputs, competitiveness against weeds, and pest and disease resistance, (ii) processing quality parameters defined by millers and bakers and (iii) nutritional quality parameters demanded by organic consumers. In this article, we review evidence from variety trials and factorial field experiments that (i) studied to what extent there is a need for organic farming focused breeding programs, (ii) investigated which traits/trait combinations should be targeted in these breeding programs and/or (iii) compared the performance of modern varieties developed for the conventional sector with traditional/older varieties favored by organic farmers and/or new varieties developed in organic farming focused breeding programs. Our review focuses on wheat because there have been organic and/or low-input farming focused wheat breeding programs for more than 20 years in Europe, which has allowed the performance of varieties/genotypes from organic/low-input and conventional farming focused breeding programs to be compared.

Introduction: Mediterranean diets (MedDiets) are linked to substantial health benefits. However, there is also growing evidence that the intensification of food production over the last 60 years has resulted in nutritionally relevant changes in the composition of foods that may augment the health benefits of MedDiets. Objective: To synthesize, summarize, and critically evaluate the currently available evidence for changes in food composition resulting from agricultural intensification practices and their potential impact on the health benefits of MedDiets. Methods: We summarized/synthesized information from (i) systematic literature reviews/meta-analyses and more recently published articles on composition differences between conventional and organic foods, (ii) desk studies which compared food composition data from before and after agricultural intensification, (iii) recent retail and farm surveys and/or factorial field experiments that identified specific agronomic practices responsible for nutritionally relevant changes in food composition, and (iv) a recent systematic literature review and a small number of subsequently published observational and dietary intervention studies that investigated the potential health impacts of changes in food composition resulting from agricultural intensification. Results and Discussion: There has been growing evidence that the intensification of food production has resulted in (i) lower concentrations of nutritionally desirable compounds (e.g., phenolics, certain vitamins, mineral micronutrients including Se, Zn, and omega-3 fatty acids, α-tocopherol) and/or (ii) higher concentrations of nutritionally undesirable or toxic compounds (pesticide residues, cadmium, omega-6 fatty acids) in many of the foods (including wholegrain cereals, fruit and vegetables, olive oil, dairy products and meat from small ruminants, and fish) that are thought to contribute to the health benefits associated with MedDiets. The evidence for negative health impacts of consuming foods from intensified conventional production systems has also increased but is still limited and based primarily on evidence from observational studies. Limitations and gaps in the current evidence base are discussed. Conclusions: There is now substantial evidence that the intensification of agricultural food production has resulted in a decline in the nutritional quality of many of the foods that are recognized to contribute to the positive health impacts associated with adhering to traditional MedDiets. Further research is needed to quantify to what extent this decline augments the positive health impacts of adhering to a traditional MedDiet.

Faba beans are one of the most suitable grain legume crop for colder, maritime climates. However, there is limited information on the effect of changing from conventional to organic production methods and potential impacts of global warming on the health and performance of faba bean crops in Northern Europe. We therefore assessed the performance of faba beans grown with contrasting crop protection (with and without pesticides) and fertilization (with and without P and K fertilizer input) regimes used in organic and conventional production in seven growing seasons. Conventional crop protection and fertilization regimes had no effect on foliar disease severity, but resulted in small, but significant increases in faba bean yields. The overall yield gap between organic and conventional production regimes was relatively small (~10%), but there was substantial variation in yields between growing seasons/years. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that climate explanatory variables/drivers explained the largest proportion of the variation in crop performance and identified strong positive associations between (i) temperature and both straw and grain yield and (ii) precipitation and foliar disease severity. However, RDA also identified crop protection and variety as significant explanatory variables for faba bean performance. The relatively small effect of using P and K fertilizers on yields and the lack of a measurable effect of fungicide applications on foliar disease severity indicate that the use of these inputs in conventional faba beans may not be economical. Results also suggest that the yield gap between organic and conventional faba bean production is significant, but smaller than for other field crops.