Biological control has been the most commonly researched control tactic within fruit fly management programs. For the first time, a review is carried out covering parasitoids and predators of fruit flies (Tephritidae) from the Americas and Hawaii, presenting the main biological control programs in this region. In this work, 31 species of fruit flies of economic importance are considered in the genera Anastrepha (11), Rhagoletis (14), Bactrocera (4), Ceratitis (1), and Zeugodacus (1). In this study, a total of 79 parasitoid species of fruit flies of economic importance are listed and, from these, 50 are native and 29 are introduced. A total of 56 species of fruit fly predators occur in the Americas and Hawaii.

The use of irradiated hosts in mass rearing tephritid parasitoids represents an important technical advance in fruit fly augmentative biological control. Irradiation assures that fly emergence is avoided in non-parasitized hosts, while at the same time it has no appreciable effect on parasitoid quality, i.e., fecundity, longevity and flight capability. Parasitoids of fruit fly eggs, larvae and pupae have all been shown to successfully develop in irradiated hosts, allowing a broad range of species to be shipped and released without post-rearing delays waiting for fly emergence and costly procedures to separate flies and wasps. This facilitates the early, more effective and less damaging shipment of natural enemies within hosts and across quarantined borders. In addition, the survival and dispersal of released parasitoids can be monitored by placing irradiated sentinel-hosts in the field. The optimal radiation dosages for host-sterility and parasitoid-fitness differ among species, and considerable progress has been made in integrating radiation into a variety of rearing procedures.

To determine the natural parasitism in fruit fly populations in disturbed areas adjacent to commercial mango orchards in the states of Chiapas and Veracruz, Mexico, we recorded over one year the fruit fly–host associations, fly infestation, and parasitism rates in backyard orchards and patches of native vegetation. We also investigated the relationship between fruit size, level of larval infestation, and percent of parasitism, and attempted to determine the presence of superparasitism. The most recurrent species in trap catches was Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart), followed by Anastrepha ludens (Loew), in both study zones. The fruit infestation rates were higher in Chiapas than in Veracruz, with A. obliqua again being the most conspicuous species emerging from collected fruits. The diversity of parasitoids species attacking fruit fly larvae was greater in Chiapas, with a predominance of Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti) in both sites, although the exotic Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) was well established in Chiapas. Fruit size was positively correlated with the number of larvae per fruit, but this relationship was not observed in the level of parasitism. The number of oviposition scars was not related to the number of immature parasitoids inside the pupa of D. areolatus emerging from plum fruits. Mass releases of Di. longicaudata seem not to affect the presence or prevalence of the native species. Our findings open new research scenarios on the role and impact of native parasitoid species attacking Anastrepha flies that can contribute to the development of sound strategies for using these species in projects for augmentative biological control.

In Guatemalan coffee plantations, Ceratitis capitata populations were suppressed by the application of augmentative releases of parasitoids. These releases significantly increased parasitism of this fruit fly over paired no-release control areas. Integrated management plus biological control presented a significant reduction in the pest population. These results support the application of biological control in C. capitata management.

The interaction between the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) and the parasitoid Coptera haywardi (Oglobin), as potential biological control agents for Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart) fruit flies, was evaluated under laboratory and semi-protected field cage conditions. The effects of the parasitoids and fungus were individually and jointly assessed in Plexiglas cages. Application of B. bassiana dry conidia to soil produced 40% mortality in A. obliqua adults. However, mortality was lower (21.2%) on evaluation under field cage conditions. According to the multiple decrement life table analysis, the probability of death of A. obliqua was 88% when C. haywardi parasitoids and B. bassiana conidia were used in conjunction, 89% when only C. haywardi parasitoids were released and 23% when only B. bassiana conidia were applied. These results demonstrate that no synergistic, additive or antagonistic interaction took place with the simultaneous use of these natural enemies, since the presence of B. bassiana had no effect on the C. haywardi parasitism. These results indicate that the parasitoid is a better natural enemy for the control of A. obliqua, and show that, although the two biological control agents can be used simultaneously, their joint application will not produce increased control.