Field observations made with unmanned aerial vehicles of the particulate matter (PM) concentration from the ground to a height of 500 m were conducted at Xiaotang and Tazhong in the Taklimakan Desert (TD), China, from 7 to 15 November 2019. The vertical structures of the PM concentrations were studied. Pulsed lidar observations showed that dust aerosols in the TD can reach heights of 4 km. Within 500 m above the ground, the PM_1.0, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀ concentrations were <100, <201, and <764 µg∙m⁻³, respectively, in the TD. On days containing sand-blowing periods (e.g., at 18:00 on 11 November), the PM_1.0, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀ concentrations were 10–17.7 times higher than on clear days. The northern margin of the TD (Xiaotang) was dominated by fine particles, while the hinterland (Tazhong) was dominated by coarse particles, because there was sparse vegetation around Xiaotang and the surface was sand and clay, while there was no vegetation around Tazhong and the surface was sand. During floating dust periods, the boundary layer was dominated by fine particles. The average PM_1.0/PM_2.5 ratios were 0.25–0.65 and 0.40–0.80 at Tazhong and Xiaotang, respectively, while, during sand blowing periods, these ratios were 0.40–0.55 and 0.40–0.45, respectively. The critical condition in the atmospheric boundary layer for PM concentration was revealed with the enhanced momentum flux and sensible heat flux up to 0.52 kg∙m⁻¹∙s⁻², 0.69 m∙s⁻¹, and 6.7 W∙m², respectively, and the low mixed layer was high in the lower atmosphere.