In biostatistics, for each of the specific situation, statistical methods are available for analysis and interpretation of the data. To select the appropriate statistical method, one need to know the assumption and conditions of the statistical methods, so that proper statistical method can be selected for data analysis. Two main statistical methods are used in data analysis: descriptive statistics, which summarizes data using indexes such as mean and median and another is inferential statistics, which draw conclusions from data using statistical tests such as student's t-test. Selection of appropriate statistical method depends on the following three things: Aim and objective of the study, Type and distribution of the data used, and Nature of the observations (paired/unpaired). All type of statistical methods that are used to compare the means are called parametric while statistical methods used to compare other than means (ex-median/mean ranks/proportions) are called nonparametric methods. In the present article, we have discussed the parametric and non-parametric methods, their assumptions, and how to select appropriate statistical methods for analysis and interpretation of the biomedical data.

Objectives: The objective of this review was to analyze quantitative data on autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and to increase the accuracy of estimates of the prevalence of ASD.Methods: This review, which was reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement, included studies conducted from January 2008 to June 2024 on children aged 3 to 18 years that used standardized measurement tools and reported cut-off scores for ASD. The prevalence of ASD was the primary outcome analyzed in this review. The PubMed, Clinical Key, Scopus, Embase, CINAHL, and Web of Science databases were reviewed for relevant studies. The review protocol was registered with PROSPERO and followed the Cochrane collaboration guidelines.Results: A total of 66 studies reported on the prevalence of ASD, screening 21,313,061 children worldwide. Among these, 25 studies were conducted in Europe, 22 in Asia, and 13 in America. Additionally, 3 studies each were reported from Africa and Australia. According to a meta-analysis, 0.77% of children globally are diagnosed with ASD, with boys comprising 1.14% of this group. Notably, Australia showed the highest prevalence rate, with an effect size of 2.18, highlighting it as a critical area for public health focus.Conclusion: ASD represents a significant global health burden. Early detection, increased awareness among parents, and prompt intervention are crucial for mitigating developmental problems in children later in life. It is essential for health policymakers to acknowledge the prevalence and growing trends of ASD in order to implement effective interventions.

Background: Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission causes significant distress that can hinder the successful transition into parenthood, child-parent relations, and child development.Purpose: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to understand parental psychological phenomena. Here we assessed the emotional response of parents of newborns during NICU admission.Methods: Two authors independently searched the PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Embase, Clinical Key, and Google Scholar databases for studies published between January 01, 2004, and December 31, 2021. The review followed Cochrane collaboration guidelines and the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) statement. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Stata software (version 16) was used to compute the results.Results: This review comprised 6,822 parents (5,083 mothers, 1,788 fathers; age range, 18–37 years) of NICU patients. The gestational ages and neonatal weights were 25.5–42 weeks and 750–2,920 g, respectively. The pooled prevalence of anxiety was higher among mothers (effect size [ES], 0.51; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.41–0.61; and heterogeneity [I2]=97.1%; P<0.001) than among fathers (ES, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.11–0.42; I2=96.6%; P<0.001). Further, the pooled prevalence of depression was higher among mothers (ES, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.24–0.38; I2=91.5%; P<0.001) than among fathers (ES, 0.12; 95% CI, 0.03–0.22; I2=85.6%; P<0.001). Similarly, the pooled prevalence of stress was higher among mothers (ES, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.31–0.51; I2= 93.9%; P<0.001) than among fathers (ES, 0.22; 95% CI, 0.09–0.34; I2=85.2%; P<0.001).Conclusion: NICU admission is more stressful for mothers than fathers and can affect mental health and quality of life. Mothers reported a higher pooled prevalence of stress, anxiety, and depression than fathers, possibly attributable to their feelings about birthing a sick child.

Measurement scale is an important part of data collection, analysis, and presentation. In the data collection and data analysis, statistical tools differ from one data type to another. There are four types of variables, namely nominal, ordinal, discrete, and continuous, and their nature and application are different. Graphs are a common method to visually present and illustrate relationships in the data. There are several statistical diagrams available to present data sets. However, their use depends on our objectives and data types. We should use the appropriate diagram for the data set, which is very useful for easily and quickly communicating summaries and findings to the audience. In the present study, statistical data type and its presentation, which are used in the field of biomedical research, have been discussed.

Metabolic acidosis is associated with increased mortality in critically ill patients. We hypothesized that early correction of acidosis of presumed metabolic origin results in improved outcomes. We conducted a prospective, observational study from February 2015 to June 2016 in a 12 bed mixed intensive care unit (ICU) of a 1000 bed tertiary care hospital in the north of India. ICU patients aged above 18 years with an admission pH ≥7.0 to <7.35 of presumed metabolic origin were included. Arterial blood gas parameters including pH, PaO2, PaCO2, HCO3 -, Na+, K+, Cl-, anion gap (AG), base excess, and lactate at 0, 6, and 24 h along with other standard laboratory investigations were recorded. The primary outcome was to assess the impact of early pH changes on mortality at day 28 of ICU. A total of 104 patients with 60.6% males and 91.3% medical patients were included in the study. Sepsis of lung origin (60.6%) was the predominant etiology. By day 28, 68 (65.4%) patients had died. Median age was 49.5 years, weight 61.7 kg, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment, and Acute Physiologic and Chronic Health Evaluation II scores were 16 and 12, respectively. Nonsurvivors had a higher vasopressor index (P < 0.01), lactate and central venous oxygen saturation (P < 0.05), and lower pH (P < 0.05). A pH correction/change of ≥1.16% during the first 24 h had the best receiver operating characteristic for predicting survival at day 28, with area under the curve (95% confidence interval, 0.72 [0.62-0.82], P < 0.05) compared to HCO3 -, BE, lactate, and AG. Metabolic acidosis is associated with higher mortality in ICU. The rate of change in pH may better predict ICU mortality than other metabolic indices.

To analyze the risk, causes, and predictors of mortality in Takayasu arteritis (TAK). Survival was assessed in a cohort of patients with TAK using Kaplan-Meier curves. Age- and sex-standardized mortality ratio (SMR = observed: expected deaths) for TAK were calculated by applying age- and sex-specific mortality rates for the local population to calculate expected deaths. Hazard ratios (HR with 95%CI) for predictors of mortality based on demographic characteristics, presenting features, baseline angiographic involvement, disease activity, number of immunosuppressive medications used, procedures related to TAK, and any serious infection were calculated using Cox regression or exponential parametric regression models. Among 224 patients with TAK (159 females, mean follow-up duration 44.36 months), survival at 1, 2, 5, and 10 years was 97.34%, 96.05%, 93.93%, and 89.23%, respectively. Twelve deaths were observed, most of which were due to cardiovascular disease (heart failure, myocardial infarction, stroke). Mortality risk was significantly higher with TAK (SMR 17.29, 95%CI 8.95–30.11) than the general population. Earlier age at disease onset (HR 0.90, 95%CI 0.83–0.98; or pediatric-onset vs adult-onset disease, HR 5.51, 95%CI 1.57–19.32), higher disease activity scores (ITAS2010: HR 1.15, 95%CI 1.05–1.25, DEI.TAK: HR 1.18, 95%CI 1.08–1.29), any serious infections (HR 5.43, 95%CI 1.72–17.12), heart failure (HR 7.83, 95%CI 2.17–28.16), or coeliac trunk involvement at baseline (HR 4.01, 95%CI 1.26–12.75) were associated with elevated mortality risk. Patients with TAK had an elevated risk of mortality as compared with the general population. Cardiovascular disease was the leading cause of death in TAK.