Cancer is one of the leading diseases, causing deaths worldwide. Nearly 10 million deaths were reported in 2020 due to cancer alone. Several factors are involved in cancer progressions, such as lifestyle and genetic characteristics. According to a recent report, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in cancer initiation, progression, and therapy failure. EVs can play a major role in intracellular communication, the maintenance of tissue homeostasis, and pathogenesis in several types of diseases. In a healthy person, EVs carry different cargoes, such as miRNA, lncRNA etc., to help other body functions. On the other hand, the same EV in a tumor microenvironment carries cargoes such as miRNA, lncRNA, etc., to initiate or help cancer progression at various stages. These stages may include the proliferation of cells and escape from apoptosis, angiogenesis, cell invasion, and metastasis, reprogramming energy metabolism, evasion of the immune response, and transfer of mutations. Tumor-derived EVs manipulate by altering normal functions of the body and affect the epigenetics of normal cells by limiting the genetic makeup through transferring mutations, histone modifications, etc. Tumor-derived EVs also pose therapy resistance through transferring drug efflux pumps and posing multiple drug resistances. Such EVs can also help as biomarkers for different cancer types and stages, which ultimately help with cancer diagnosis at early stages. In this review, we will shed light on EVs’ role in performing normal functions of the body and their position in different hallmarks of cancer, in altering the genetics of a normal cell in a tumor microenvironment, and their role in therapy resistance, as well as the importance of EVs as diagnostic tools.

West Nile Virus (WNV) belongs to the orthoflavivirus genus and is part of the Flaviviridae family, which includes the Japanese encephalitis virus, Dengue virus, Zika virus, and yellow fever virus. WNV circulates among birds and mosquitoes, posing infection risks to humans and mammals. The significant rise in WNV’s geographic spread and infection rates over the past five decades has prompted urgent public health concerns, driving the need for accelerated vaccine research. The development of a vaccine for WNV infection presents several challenges, primarily due to the virus’s complex biology, the risk of cross-reactivity with other flaviviruses, safety concerns such as antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), and the economic and logistical hurdles in vaccine production. Despite significant research efforts, no human vaccine has been approved, although several candidates are in various stages of development. The current review offers a comprehensive summary of the latest progress and the concomitant challenges in the development of vaccines. It also discusses the role of host–pathogen interaction, host immunity, viral immune evasion, and disease pathogenesis in facilitating the advancement of vaccines.

West Nile Virus (WNV) belongs to the orthoflavivirus genus and is part of the Flaviviridae family, which includes the Japanese encephalitis virus, Dengue virus, Zika virus, and yellow fever virus. WNV circulates among birds and mosquitoes, posing infection risks to humans and mammals. The significant rise in WNV's geographic spread and infection rates over the past five decades has prompted urgent public health concerns, driving the need for accelerated vaccine research. The development of a vaccine for WNV infection presents several challenges, primarily due to the virus's complex biology, the risk of cross-reactivity with other flaviviruses, safety concerns such as Antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), and the economic and logistical hurdles in vaccine production. Despite significant research efforts, no human vaccine has been approved, although several candidates are in various stages of development. The current review offers a comprehensive summary of the latest progress and the concomitant challenges in the development of vaccines. It also discusses the role of host-pathogen interaction, host immunity, viral immune evasion, and disease pathogenesis in facilitating the advancement of vaccines.