Satellite-aerial-ground integrated network (SAGIN) has been widely envisioned as a promising network architecture for 6 G. In the SAGINs, high altitude platform (HAP)-aided relaying satellite systems using hybrid free-space optics (FSO)/radio-frequency (RF) communications have recently attracted research efforts worldwide. Nevertheless, the main drawback of hybrid FSO/RF systems is the restricted bandwidth of the RF connection, especially when the FSO one is blocked by cloud coverage. This paper explores a novel solution for the hybrid FSO/RF HAP-based SAGIN under the impact of weather and atmospheric conditions. Specifically, an additional unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is deployed to diverse the FSO link from the HAP-to-ground station to avoid cloud blockage while maintaining a high-speed connection of the FSO link. A mirror array constructed by re-configurable intelligent surface (RIS), an emerging technology, is mounted on the UAV to reflect the signals from the HAP. The channel model of RIS-UAV takes into account both atmospheric turbulence and hovering-induced pointing errors. Furthermore, we present a novel link switching design with a multi-rate adaptation scheme for the proposed network under different weather and turbulence conditions. Numerical results quantitatively confirm the effectiveness of our proposal. Additionally, we provide insightful discussions that can be helpful for the practical system design of RIS-UAV-assisted HAP-based SAGIN using hybrid FSO/RF links. Monte Carlo simulations are also performed to validate the accuracy of theoretical derivations.

This paper addresses the design of hybrid free-space optical/radio frequency (FSO/RF) systems for a high-altitude platform (HAP)-aided relaying satellite communication for mobile networks supported by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). While prior work primarily focused on fixed-rate design, which frequently switches between FSO and RF lead reduced the system performance, we propose a rate adaptation design that gradually adjusts the data rate in each link when its channel state fluctuates, under a target bit error rate (BER) constraint. The proposed design’s downlink performance is analyzed, taking into account many challenging issues, including beam spreading loss, cloud attenuation, statistical behaviors of the atmospheric turbulence in the dual-hop channel, and pointing misalignment due to the UAV hovering. Different performance metrics are analytically derived based on channel modelings, including outage probability, average transmission rate, and achievable spectrum efficiency. In addition, the average system BER, which satisfies the design constraint, is also numerically obtained. The results quantitatively confirm the effectiveness of our proposed system under the impact of UAV hovering misalignment and atmospheric-related issues like clouds and turbulence. Finally, Monte-Carlo simulations validate the accuracy of theoretical results.

Free space optical (FSO) communication has established a reputation for itself capable of delivering high-speed data services over long distances without exhausting radio frequency (RF) resources. FSO communication can be considered in different network scenarios, including inter-satellite/deep-space links, ground-station/vehicles, satellite/aerial links, and terrestrial links. It is expected to be one of the key enabling technologies for the next generation of 6G wireless networks. Nevertheless, despite the great potential of FSO communications, its performance suffers from various limitations and challenges: atmospheric turbulence, clouds, weather conditions, and pointing misalignment. The error-control solutions, including physical layer (PHY) and link-layer methods, aim to mitigate the transmission errors caused by such adverse issues. While the existing surveys on error-control solutions in FSO systems primarily focussed on the PHY methods, we instead provide a review of link-layer solutions. In particular, we conduct an extensive literature survey of state-of-the-art retransmission protocols, both automatic repeat request (ARQ) and hybrid ARQ (HARQ), for various FSO communication scenarios, including point-to-point terrestrial, cooperative, multi-hop relaying, hybrid FSO/RF, satellite/aerial, and deep-space systems. Furthermore, we provide a survey of recent literature and insightful discussion on the cross-layer design frameworks related to link-layer retransmission protocols in FSO communication networks. Finally, the lessons learned, design guidelines, related open issues, and future research directions are exposed.

Free-space optics (FSO)-based, low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite-assisted Internet of vehicles (IoVs) has recently attracted research efforts worldwide. For the majority of Internet applications, transmission control protocol (TCP) is one of the most widely deployed protocols. Nevertheless, a complete understanding of the TCP performance over FSO-based satellite-assisted IoVs networks is still lacking in the literature. This is a highly challenging issue, as a consequence of the non-trivial interdependencies between transmission losses caused by the dynamics/uncertainty of atmospheric last-mile channels and the buffer overflows on the Internet, as well as their joint impact on the TCP congestion control mechanisms. This paper offers a comprehensive analytical framework that allows assessing the TCP throughput performance under the joint impact of congestion losses occurred in the Internet and transmission errors at the last-mile link from the satellite-to-vehicle. Internet access for emerging unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is considered while the analysis can be also applied to other kinds of vehicles, which, in fact, require simpler channel models. The link-layer incremental redundancy hybrid automatic repeat request (IR-HARQ) protocol is employed at satellite-to-UAV channels to further improve the TCP throughput performance. Numerical results provide non-trivial findings and insights for the TCP performance in satellite/FSO-based IoVs, in which optimal UAV's parameters are chosen to maximize the TCP throughput.

This letter addresses the attenuation statistics due to the clouds on satellite-based free-space optical communications. Specifically, we present a novel distribution model of monthly cloud attenuation for several regions in Japan. To this purpose, a five-year reanalysis meteorological database, namely, ERA-Interim, produced from the European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF), is investigated. The cloud liquid water content (CLWC) obtained from the ECMWF ERA-interim database is used to determine the cloud attenuation. The curve-fitting method is performed to derive the probability density function (PDF) of cloud attenuation. The results show that the log-normal distribution best models the PDF of monthly cloud attenuation.

This paper investigates the second-order statistics of the level crossing rate (LCR) and average fade duration (AFD) for the optical wireless channels between a satellite and a vehicle. Specifically, the novel expressions of LCR and AFD for the low earth orbit (LEO) satellite-to-unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) laser links are derived in the presence of the generalized misalignments caused by the satellite vibration together with the UAV hovering, which is modeled by a four-parameter Beckmann distribution, and the atmospheric turbulence conditions. The analysis can also be applied to other kinds of vehicles, which, in fact, require simpler channel models. Several numerical examples are presented to quantitatively demonstrate the impact of both atmospheric turbulence and pointing errors on the LCR and AFD. The Monte Carlo simulations are performed to validate the correctness of the theoretical derivations.