As part of its climate strategy, the EU aims at increasing the share of electricity from renewable energy sources (RES-E) in overall electricity generation. Attaining this target poses a considerable challenge as the electricity sector is “locked” into a carbon-intensive system, which hampers the adoption of RES-E technologies. Electricity generation, transmission and distribution grids as well as storage and demand response are subject to important path dependences, which put existing, non-renewable energy sources at an advantage. This paper examines how an EU framework for RES-E support policies should be designed to facilitate a carbon lock-out. For this purpose, we specify the major technological, economic and institutional barriers to RES-E. For each of the barriers, a policy review is carried out which assesses the performance of existing policy instruments and identifies needs for reform. The review reveals several shortcomings: while policies targeting generation are widely in place, measures to address barriers associated with electricity grids, storage and demand are still in their infancy and have to be extended. Moreover, the implementation of policies has been fragmented across EU Member States. In this respect, national policies should be embedded into an integrated EU-wide planning of the RES-E system with overarching energy scenarios and partially harmonized policy rules.

Summary This paper develops an example beyond traditional microeconomic theory that provides a new explanation of Giffen behaviour. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggests that an individual’s preferences are not fixed but, rather, depend on purchasing power. A decrease in purchasing power with respect to low-hierarchy goods (e.g., bread) is likely to augment an individual’s preferences for such goods and to weaken preferences for high-hierarchy goods (e.g., books). By introducing a simple purchasing-power-dependent utility function that satisfies the standard assumptions, it is shown that the preference-shifting effect can provoke Giffen behaviour.