Context: Information on methods of age estimation in physical anthropology, in particular with regard to age-at-death from human skeletal remains, is widely available in the literature. However, the practicalities and real challenges faced in forensic casework are not always highlighted. Objectives: To provide a practitioner's perspective, regarding age estimation in forensic anthropology (both in the living as well as the dead), with an emphasis on the types of cases, the value of such work and its challenges and limitations. Methods: The paper reviews the current literature on age estimation with a focus on forensic anthropology, but it also brings the author's personal perspective derived from a number of forensic cases. Results and conclusions: Although much is known about what methods to use, but not always how to apply them, little attention has been given in the literature to the real practicalities faced by forensic anthropologists, for example: the challenges in different types of scenarios; how to report age estimations; responsibilities; and ethical concerns. This paper gathers some of these aspects into one overview which includes the value of such work and the practical challenges, not necessarily with the methods themselves, but also with regard to how these are applied in the different cases where age estimation is required.

DNA identification of human remains has a valuable role in the field of forensic science and wider. Although DNA is vital in identification of unknown human remains, post-mortem environmental factors can lead to poor molecular preservation. In this respect, focus has been placed on DNA extraction methodologies for hard tissue samples, as these are the longest surviving. Despite decades of research being conducted on DNA extraction methods for bone and teeth, little consensus has been reached as to the best performing. Therefore, the aim of this study was to conduct a thorough systematic literature review to identify potential DNA extraction technique(s) which perform optimally for forensic DNA profiling from hard tissue samples. PRISMA guidelines were used, by which a search strategy was developed. This included identifying databases and discipline specific journals, keywords, and exclusion and inclusion criteria. In total, 175 articles were identified that detailed over 50 different DNA extraction methodologies. Results of the meta-analysis conducted on 41 articles - meeting further inclusion criteria - showed that statistically significant higher DNA profiling success was associated with solid-phase magnetic bead/resin methods. In addition, incorporating a demineralisation pre-step resulted in significantly higher profiling successes. For hard tissue type, bone outperformed teeth, and even though dense cortical femur samples were more frequently used across the studies, profiling success was comparable, and in some cases, higher in cancellous bone samples. Notably, incomplete data sharing resulted in many studies being excluded, thus an emphasis for minimum reporting standards is made. In conclusion, this study identifies strategies that may improve success rates of forensic DNA profiling from hard tissue samples. Finally, continued improvements to current methods can ensure faster times to resolution and restoring the identity of those who died in obscurity.