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Han Hao
China Automotive Energy Research Center, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

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Journal article
Published: 13 July 2021 in Sustainability
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The national targets of reaching carbon peak in 2030 and carbon neutrality in 2060 propose higher requirements for energy conservation and emission reduction of China’s automobile industry. As an important measure for the government, the fuel consumption and new energy vehicle (NEV) credit policy system has a significant impact on the Chinese and even the global vehicle market. Considering the lack of a systematic evaluation model for China’s fuel consumption and NEV credit regulations, this study establishes a hierarchical optimization decision-making model based on technology frontier curves and a multi-dimension database containing extensive data of technologies, products, and enterprises in the Chinese market to simulate and evaluate the technology compliance and policy impact under multiple regulations. The results show that, from the perspective of the technology frontier curve, gasoline technologies still have great cost-effectiveness advantages when the fuel-saving requirement is less than 46%, and the space for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and range-extended electric vehicles (REVs) is gradually shrinking due to the cost reduction of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). BEV400 will be better than PHEV70 and REV100 when the fuel-saving requirement is higher than 79%. Diesel vehicles are always not competitive in the passenger car market. In terms of the compliance of corporate average fuel consumption (CAFC) regulation, the start-stop technology will be gradually phased out and mild hybrid electric vehicles will be rapidly introduced due to their high cost-effectiveness in 2025. With the tightening of regulations, the penetration rate of BEVs and PHEVs will be 23.7% and 6.7%, respectively, and mild hybrid electric vehicles will be gradually replaced by strong hybrid electric vehicles in 2030. By 2035, the penetration rate of BEVs and PHEVs will be 43.6% and 6% further. For the CAFC and NEV credit regulation (widely known as the dual credit regulation), the single-vehicle credit poses a greater impact on the penetration of NEVs than corporate credit percentage limitation and is the key factor that should be focused on. The NEV credit limitation in the dual credit regulation could push ‘poor performance’ automakers to produce the required number of NEVs and meet the bottom line. However, in the long term, when compared to the CAFC regulation, the dual credit regulation is more lenient, due to NEVs being able to get double benefits both on NEV credit and CAFC credit, and NEV credit can also unidirectionally compensate CAFC credit under the dual-credit policy context. With the increased penetration and cost reduction of NEVs, the ‘averaging’ effect of dual credit regulation will inhibit the development of energy-saving and new energy vehicles. Therefore, eliminating the connection between NEV credit and CAFC credit or only leaving the CAFC and the fuel consumption limit regulations in the future will be better for the long-term development of the energy-saving and new energy vehicle industry.

ACS Style

Kangda Chen; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu; Xinglong Liu. Hierarchical Optimization Decision-Making Method to Comply with China’s Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Credit Regulations. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7842 .

AMA Style

Kangda Chen, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu, Xinglong Liu. Hierarchical Optimization Decision-Making Method to Comply with China’s Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Credit Regulations. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (14):7842.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kangda Chen; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu; Xinglong Liu. 2021. "Hierarchical Optimization Decision-Making Method to Comply with China’s Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Credit Regulations." Sustainability 13, no. 14: 7842.

Journal article
Published: 06 July 2021 in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
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The large sales volume and a great number of passenger car ownership in China have brought a series of environmental and energy problems. In response to these problems, Corporate Average Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Dual-credit Regulation has been put forward in China. However, it is found that although the purpose of the Dual-credit Regulation is controlling the fuel consumption and promoting the development of the energy vehicle market, the fuel consumption restriction for fossil-fueled passenger cars is relaxed compared to CAFC (Corporate Average Fuel Consumption) regulation alone. Moreover, this effect of relaxation is more obvious when the market share of new energy vehicles increases. To quantitatively estimate the relaxation effect of the fuel consumption restriction, a method of quantifying the relaxation effect is designed, and three different scenarios of new energy vehicle market development have been presumed in this paper. It is found that there are three main factors related to new energy vehicles that cause the relaxation of fuel consumption restriction, and the effect might become obvious and severe after 2025 if the market share of new energy vehicles develops very rapidly. These results may affect the development of the automotive industry and needed to be concerned.

ACS Style

Haoyi Zhang; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. Effect of Chinese Corporate Average Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Dual-Credit Regulation on Passenger Cars Average Fuel Consumption Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18, 7218 .

AMA Style

Haoyi Zhang, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu. Effect of Chinese Corporate Average Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Dual-Credit Regulation on Passenger Cars Average Fuel Consumption Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18 (14):7218.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Haoyi Zhang; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. 2021. "Effect of Chinese Corporate Average Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Dual-Credit Regulation on Passenger Cars Average Fuel Consumption Analysis." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 14: 7218.

Journal article
Published: 16 June 2021 in Resources, Conservation and Recycling
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Graphite is considered a critical mineral because of its importance to clean energy transition and global supply concentration. This critical role is evident for electric vehicles that depends on lithium-ion batteries using graphite as anode material. China is the world's largest producer and consumer of natural graphite due to its booming economy and rapid penetration of clean energy driven by carbon neutrality ambition. Given this background, this study conducts a dynamic material flow analysis of natural graphite to reveal the evolution trend of graphite flows in China from 2001 to 2018. Main results include: (1) China's graphite resource experienced extensive utilization to meet demands from domestic consumption (55-83%) and exportation (17-45%); (2) Of the 1643 Gg/yr graphite entering China's anthroposphere, 15% accumulates in in-use stock and 34% enters the waste stage, and secondary graphite only accounts for 0.7-5.7% of the total supply; (3) Releases of graphite (1271 Gg/yr) are mainly divided into tailings, dissipative losses in use, and post-consumer losses; (4) The export-production ratio has increased from 16% in 2001 to 40% in 2018; (5) Graphite demand from electric vehicles is estimated to be 18 times the current level by 2030 (2340 Gg). These results imply that China should not only prepare national policies on managing the overall graphite production activities in response to concerns about domestic resource loss and environmental disruption induced from extractive and processing activities, but also prepare policies encouraging appropriate graphite recycling from safety and economic feasibility perspectives.

ACS Style

Xue Rui; Yong Geng; Xin Sun; Han Hao; Shijiang Xiao. Dynamic material flow analysis of natural graphite in China for 2001-2018. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2021, 173, 105732 .

AMA Style

Xue Rui, Yong Geng, Xin Sun, Han Hao, Shijiang Xiao. Dynamic material flow analysis of natural graphite in China for 2001-2018. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2021; 173 ():105732.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xue Rui; Yong Geng; Xin Sun; Han Hao; Shijiang Xiao. 2021. "Dynamic material flow analysis of natural graphite in China for 2001-2018." Resources, Conservation and Recycling 173, no. : 105732.

Journal article
Published: 27 March 2021 in International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
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Hydrogen fuel cells, as an energy source for heavy duty vehicles, are gaining attention as a potential carbon mitigation strategy. Here we calculate the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the Chinese heavy-duty truck fleet under four hydrogen fuel cell heavy-duty truck penetration scenarios from 2020 through 2050. We introduce Aggressive, Moderate, Conservative and No Fuel Cell Vehicle (No FCV) scenarios. Under these four scenarios, the market share of heavy-duty trucks powered by fuel cells will reach 100%, 50%, 20% and 0%, respectively, in 2050. We go beyond previous studies which compared differences in GHG emissions from different hydrogen production pathways. We now combine an analysis of the carbon intensity of various hydrogen production pathways with predictions of the future hydrogen supply structure in China along with various penetration rates of heavy-duty fuel cell vehicles. We calculate the associated carbon intensity per vehicle kilometer travelled of the hydrogen used in heavy-duty trucks in each scenario, providing a practical application of our research. Our results indicate that if China relies only on fuel economy improvements, with the projected increase in vehicle miles travelled, the GHG emissions of the heavy-duty truck fleet will continue to increase and will remain almost unchanged after 2025. The Aggressive, Moderate and Conservative FCV Scenarios will achieve 63%, 30% and 12% reductions, respectively, in GHG emissions in 2050 from the heavy duty truck fleet compared to the No FCV Scenario. Additional reductions are possible if the current source of hydrogen from fossil fuels was displaced with increased use of hydrogen from water electrolysis using non-fossil generated electricity.

ACS Style

Feiqi Liu; Denise L. Mauzerall; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao. Deployment of fuel cell vehicles in China: Greenhouse gas emission reductions from converting the heavy-duty truck fleet from diesel and natural gas to hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46, 17982 -17997.

AMA Style

Feiqi Liu, Denise L. Mauzerall, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao. Deployment of fuel cell vehicles in China: Greenhouse gas emission reductions from converting the heavy-duty truck fleet from diesel and natural gas to hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2021; 46 (34):17982-17997.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Feiqi Liu; Denise L. Mauzerall; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao. 2021. "Deployment of fuel cell vehicles in China: Greenhouse gas emission reductions from converting the heavy-duty truck fleet from diesel and natural gas to hydrogen." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 46, no. 34: 17982-17997.

Journal article
Published: 19 March 2021 in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
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As a main measure to promote the development of China’s energy–saving and new energy vehicles, the Phase V fuel consumption regulation is dramatically different from the past four phases, especially in the test procedure, moving from the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) to the worldwide harmonized light duty test cycle (WLTC) and corresponding test procedure (WLTP). The switch of test procedure will not only affect the effectiveness of technologies but also change the fuel consumption target of the industry. However, few studies have systematically investigated the impacts of the new WLTP on the Chinese market. This study establishes a “technology–vehicle–fleet” bottom–up framework to estimate the impacts of test procedure switching on technology effectiveness and regulation stringency. The results show that due to the WLTP being closer to the real driving condition and more stringent, almost all baseline vehicles in the WLTP have higher fuel consumption than that in the NEDC, and diesel vehicles are slightly more impacted than gasoline vehicles. In addition, the impacts are increased with the strengthening of electrification, where the fuel consumption of plug–in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs) in the WLTP are about 6% higher than that in the NEDC. Engine technologies that gain higher effects in low load conditions, such as turbocharging and downsizing, fuel stratified injection (FSI), lean–burn, and variable valve timing (VVT), are faced with deterioration in the WLTP. Among these, the effect of turbocharging and downsizing shows a maximum decline of 8.5%. The variable compression ratio (VCR) and stoichiometric gasoline direct injection (SGDI) are among the few technologies that benefited from procedure switching, with an average improvement of 1.6% and 0.2% respectively. Except for multi–speed transmissions, which have improvement effects in the WLTP, all automatic transmissions are faced with decreases. From the perspective of the whole fleet and national regulation target, the average fuel consumption in the WLTP will increase by about 7.5% in 2025 compared to 4 L/100 km in the NEDC. According to the current planning of the Chinese government, the fuel consumption target of Phase V is set at 4.6 L/100 km in 2025, which is equivalent to loosening the stringency by 0.3 L/100 km. In Phase VI, the target of 3.2 L/100 km is maintained, which is 30.4% stricter than that of Phase V, and the annual compound tightening rate reaches 7.5%. This means that automakers need to launch their product planning as soon as possible and expand the technology bandwidth to comply with the Phase VI fuel consumption regulation, and the government should evaluate the technical feasibility before determining the evaluation methods and targets of the next phase.

ACS Style

Kangda Chen; Fuquan Zhao; Xinglong Liu; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. Impacts of the New Worldwide Light-Duty Test Procedure on Technology Effectiveness and China’s Passenger Vehicle Fuel Consumption Regulations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18, 3199 .

AMA Style

Kangda Chen, Fuquan Zhao, Xinglong Liu, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu. Impacts of the New Worldwide Light-Duty Test Procedure on Technology Effectiveness and China’s Passenger Vehicle Fuel Consumption Regulations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18 (6):3199.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kangda Chen; Fuquan Zhao; Xinglong Liu; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. 2021. "Impacts of the New Worldwide Light-Duty Test Procedure on Technology Effectiveness and China’s Passenger Vehicle Fuel Consumption Regulations." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 6: 3199.

Journal article
Published: 15 March 2021 in International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
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Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have the potential to contribute significantly to improving air quality and addressing climate concerns in the future. However, due to the highly dynamic technology and manufacturing developments, there is a lack of understanding of the state-of-the-art global FCV industry chain and associated supply risks. This study fills such a research gap by mapping global FCV industry chain during the period 2017–2019, and assessing the supply risks of relevant key commodities. The results show that significant supply risks existed in global FCV industry chain, especially in upstream commodities like platinum and gas diffusion layer (GDL). The combined indicator of Herfindahl-Hirschman Index and Worldwide Governance-Indicator (HHI-WGI) is used to quantify the supply risks, showing that HHI-WGI of platinum is on the highest level. On the national level, supply risks are identified primarily in platinum for Japan, in vehicles for the United States, and along the entire industry chain for China. Network analysis is conducted to visualize and analyze how countries, companies and commodities are connected, showing that the highest supply risks were identified in GDLs. It is recommended that country-specific measures should be taken to mitigate supply risks, including building up national stocks of critical materials, investing overseas, enhancing the guidance over industry policies, and stepping up infrastructure construction.

ACS Style

Dengye Xun; Xin Sun; Jingxuan Geng; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao. Mapping global fuel cell vehicle industry chain and assessing potential supply risks. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46, 15097 -15109.

AMA Style

Dengye Xun, Xin Sun, Jingxuan Geng, Zongwei Liu, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao. Mapping global fuel cell vehicle industry chain and assessing potential supply risks. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2021; 46 (29):15097-15109.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Dengye Xun; Xin Sun; Jingxuan Geng; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao. 2021. "Mapping global fuel cell vehicle industry chain and assessing potential supply risks." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 46, no. 29: 15097-15109.

Research and analysis
Published: 28 August 2020 in Journal of Industrial Ecology
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Neodymium is one of the most important enabling materials for next‐generation clean technologies, especially electric vehicles and wind turbines. As the world's largest producer of rare earth minerals, China dominates the global neodymium supply and a considerable amount of primary neodymium resources are from illegal mining. Many studies have been conducted on the material flow of neodymium in different regions, but few studies focus on China. In this study, a static material flow analysis of neodymium is conducted to quantitatively analyze the industrial chain structure of neodymium in China and to calculate the neodymium output from illegal mining. The results quantitatively depict the neodymium material flow of each stage of China's neodymium industrial chain in 2016, which indicates that 12.3–17.0 kt of primary neodymium resources were from illegal mining. On the basis of the results, reasonable conclusions can be drawn that the recycling of neodymium from end‐of‐life products provides an important opportunity to both reduce illegal rare earth mining and cope with increasing neodymium demand.

ACS Style

Jingxuan Geng; Han Hao; Xin Sun; Dengye Xun; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. Static material flow analysis of neodymium in China. Journal of Industrial Ecology 2020, 25, 114 -124.

AMA Style

Jingxuan Geng, Han Hao, Xin Sun, Dengye Xun, Zongwei Liu, Fuquan Zhao. Static material flow analysis of neodymium in China. Journal of Industrial Ecology. 2020; 25 (1):114-124.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jingxuan Geng; Han Hao; Xin Sun; Dengye Xun; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. 2020. "Static material flow analysis of neodymium in China." Journal of Industrial Ecology 25, no. 1: 114-124.

Journal article
Published: 12 August 2020 in Sustainability
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The Chinese government has made a commitment to control carbon emissions, and the deployment of renewable energy power generation is considered as an effective solution. In recent years, great effort has been exerted to support the development of renewable energy in China. While, due to fiscal pressures and changes in management policies, related subsidies are diminishing now and energy users are asked to pay for the cost. Regulations about carbon cap and renewable energy consumptions are issued to transfer the responsibility of consuming renewable energy and reducing carbon emissions to energy consumers. A national carbon trading system is set up in China and is under its growth stage. Therefore, this study lists the factors that should be considered by the energy users, analyzes the levelized cost of electricity generated by renewable energy in four cities in China, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Wuhan, and compares the results with current carbon prices. Based on the research, under the current status, it is still more cost-efficient for enterprises to buy carbon credits than introduce renewable energies, and great differences among cities are shown due to different natural conditions. Besides, with diminishing subsidies and development of the carbon trading market, the carbon price will gradually reflect the actual value and carbon emission reduction costs will become an important part of enterprise expenditure. In the long term, enterprises should link more factors to carbon emissions, like social responsibility and brand image, instead of only the cost.

ACS Style

Fuquan Zhao; Feiqi Liu; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. Carbon Emission Reduction Strategy for Energy Users in China. Sustainability 2020, 12, 6498 .

AMA Style

Fuquan Zhao, Feiqi Liu, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu. Carbon Emission Reduction Strategy for Energy Users in China. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (16):6498.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Fuquan Zhao; Feiqi Liu; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. 2020. "Carbon Emission Reduction Strategy for Energy Users in China." Sustainability 12, no. 16: 6498.

Journal article
Published: 17 July 2020 in Sustainability
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The switching from new European driving cycle (NEDC) to worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedure (WLTP) will affect the energy consumption of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), and then affect the new energy vehicle (NEV) credit regulation and subsidy policy for PHEVs. This paper reveals the impact on energy consumption, NEV credit regulation, and subsidy policy for PHEV in the Chinese market of the switching from NEDC to WLTP based on qualitative analysis and quantitative calculation. The results show that the WLTP procedure is stricter than NEDC in the determination of road load, test mass, driving resistance forces, and tire selection. Firstly, the electricity consumption (EC) of PHEV in charge-depleting mode (CD) under the WLTP procedure is 26% higher than NEDC on average, which makes the all-electric range (AER) significantly lower under WLTP. The weight EC tested in the WLTP procedure is higher than NEDC. Secondly, the fuel consumption (FC) of PHEV in CD mode is related to the adjustment of the engine management system (EMS) and the size of battery energy under the WLTP procedure. For the FC in the charge-sustaining (CS) mode of PHEV under the WLTP procedure is 20% higher than NEDC on average. However, the weight fuel consumption of PHEVs under WLTP with a long AER may be lower than that of NEDC due to the characteristics of utility factor in the WLTP procedure. Thirdly, most PHEVs fail to meet the requirements of 50 km AER due to the switching of the test procedures. However, the Chinese government reduced the technical specification of PHEV’s AER under the WLTP procedure to 43 km to support the development of PHEV technology. It ensures that the switching of test procedures does not change the treatment that they could obtain, the NEV credits, and subsidy as a NEV in China. However, the increasing of the EC in CD mode and the FC in CS mode under the WLTP procedure makes the PHEV obtain lower credit and subsidy multiple compared with NEDC procedure.

ACS Style

Xinglong Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Kangda Chen; Zongwei Liu; Hassan Babiker; Amer Amer. From NEDC to WLTP: Effect on the Energy Consumption, NEV Credits, and Subsidies Policies of PHEV in the Chinese Market. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5747 .

AMA Style

Xinglong Liu, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao, Kangda Chen, Zongwei Liu, Hassan Babiker, Amer Amer. From NEDC to WLTP: Effect on the Energy Consumption, NEV Credits, and Subsidies Policies of PHEV in the Chinese Market. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (14):5747.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xinglong Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Kangda Chen; Zongwei Liu; Hassan Babiker; Amer Amer. 2020. "From NEDC to WLTP: Effect on the Energy Consumption, NEV Credits, and Subsidies Policies of PHEV in the Chinese Market." Sustainability 12, no. 14: 5747.

Journal article
Published: 20 June 2020 in Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment
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The penetration rate of Electric Vehicles (EVs) is continuously growing in China. Since EV is considered as an environment-friendly vehicle with lower cost of operation, many studies have paid attention to the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission evaluation on EVs. This study aims to expand the scope and provide comprehensive results for LCC and GHG emission comparison between ICEV and EV under different driving cycles, which refer to the driving patterns and parameters such as velocity and acceleration changed by years. The charging infrastructure and battery pilot use have also been involved in the evaluation. Results show that the LCC of an EV is about 9% higher than that of an ICEV under the driving cycle in Beijing in 2020. At the same time, the life cycle GHG emissions of an EV are about 29% lower than those of an ICEV. If the lifetime mileage is not as long as expected, the gap of LCC would be larger and the gap of GHG emissions would be smaller. Recycling is very effective in reducing the GHG emissions but does not work for LCC reduction. Battery pilot use has large potentials on LCC reduction but it still needs time to realize. In this scenario without battery pilot use, the cost effectiveness of an EV is about 4 kg CO2eq/$.

ACS Style

Qinyu Qiao; Fuquan Zhao; Zongwei Liu; Han Hao; Xin He; Steven Victor Przesmitzki; Amer Ahmad Amer. Life cycle cost and GHG emission benefits of electric vehicles in China. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 2020, 86, 102418 .

AMA Style

Qinyu Qiao, Fuquan Zhao, Zongwei Liu, Han Hao, Xin He, Steven Victor Przesmitzki, Amer Ahmad Amer. Life cycle cost and GHG emission benefits of electric vehicles in China. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 2020; 86 ():102418.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Qinyu Qiao; Fuquan Zhao; Zongwei Liu; Han Hao; Xin He; Steven Victor Przesmitzki; Amer Ahmad Amer. 2020. "Life cycle cost and GHG emission benefits of electric vehicles in China." Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 86, no. : 102418.

Journal article
Published: 18 June 2020 in Sustainability
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With the increasing pressure on the automotive industry due to energy consumption, environmental pollution and climate change, internal combustion engines, which occupy a dominant position in traditional automotive powertrains, are facing considerable challenges from battery electric powertrains. This paper presents an in-depth analysis and objective interpretation of the challenges, potential and opportunities for internal combustion engines in this point. Specifically, the global automotive industry is approaching the “Power 2.0 era”, and multiple powertrains will coexist for a long time. The relationships between the various powertrains are complementary rather than simply competitive in China. Only by optimizing the product and technology combination can the best solution be obtained to meet the increasingly stringent regulations and the escalating needs for mobility. At the same time, internal combustion engines will continue to play an important role in the development of the automotive industry, and they have the potential for further improvement in plenty of areas, such as thermal efficiency, emissions and electrification. Internal combustion engines will undergo an important evolution toward high efficiency through fixed-point operation, system simplification and cost reduction. In addition, the electrification of powertrains, the upgrading and diversification of fuel designs, and the development of intelligent and connected technologies will bring unprecedented opportunities for making the internal combustion engine more efficient, green and clean to better serve society in the near future.

ACS Style

Fuquan Zhao; Kangda Chen; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. Challenges, Potential and Opportunities for Internal Combustion Engines in China. Sustainability 2020, 12, 4955 .

AMA Style

Fuquan Zhao, Kangda Chen, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu. Challenges, Potential and Opportunities for Internal Combustion Engines in China. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (12):4955.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Fuquan Zhao; Kangda Chen; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. 2020. "Challenges, Potential and Opportunities for Internal Combustion Engines in China." Sustainability 12, no. 12: 4955.

Journal article
Published: 04 May 2020 in Journal of Cleaner Production
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Platinum group metals, as the rarest elements in the lithosphere, are technological enablers in many modern industrial processes, especially in the automotive industry. Due to the limited availability of natural resources, increasing the recycling rate is essential for securing the supply of platinum group metals. This paper estimates the end-of-life recycling rates of platinum group metals in the automotive industry at the regional level during the period 2000–2017. The results show that in North America, Europe and Japan, the end-of-life recycling rates increased from very low levels in 2000 to above 50% in 2017. In contrast, they stayed at a significantly lower level in China. In-use stocks of platinum group metals in the automotive industry of North America, Europe, Japan and China reached over 3.65 kt in 2017 and included 1.33 kt of platinum, 1.95 kt of palladium and 0.37 kt of rhodium. These in-use stocks represent a major opportunity for secondary platinum group metal recovery. The priority for recycling improvement should be increasing the collection rate.

ACS Style

Dengye Xun; Han Hao; Xin Sun; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. End-of-life recycling rates of platinum group metals in the automotive industry: Insight into regional disparities. Journal of Cleaner Production 2020, 266, 121942 .

AMA Style

Dengye Xun, Han Hao, Xin Sun, Zongwei Liu, Fuquan Zhao. End-of-life recycling rates of platinum group metals in the automotive industry: Insight into regional disparities. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2020; 266 ():121942.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Dengye Xun; Han Hao; Xin Sun; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. 2020. "End-of-life recycling rates of platinum group metals in the automotive industry: Insight into regional disparities." Journal of Cleaner Production 266, no. : 121942.

Journal article
Published: 14 April 2020 in Energies
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With the rapid development of new energy vehicles (NEVs) industry in China, the reusing of retired power batteries is becoming increasingly urgent. In this paper, the critical issues for power batteries reusing in China are systematically studied. First, the strategic value of power batteries reusing, and the main modes of battery reusing are analyzed. Second, the economic benefit models of power batteries echelon utilization and recycling are constructed. Finally, the economic benefits of lithium iron phosphate (LIP) battery and ternary lithium (TL) battery under different reusing modes are analyzed based on the economic benefit models. The results show that when the industrial chain is fully coordinated, LIP battery echelon utilization is profitable based on a reasonable scenario scheme. However, the multi-level echelon utilization is only practical under an ideal scenario, and more attention should be paid to the first level echelon utilization. Besides, the performance matching of different types of batteries has a great impact on the echelon utilization income. Thus, considering the huge potentials of China’s energy storage market, the design of automobile power batteries in the future should give due consideration to the performance requirements of energy storage batteries. Moreover, the TL battery could only be recycled directly, while the LIP has the feasibility of echelon utilization at present. At the same time, it will strengthen the cost advantage of the LIP battery, which deserves special attention.

ACS Style

Zongwei Liu; Xinglong Liu; Han Hao; Fuquan Zhao; Amer Ahmad Amer; Hassan Babiker. Research on the Critical Issues for Power Battery Reusing of New Energy Vehicles in China. Energies 2020, 13, 1932 .

AMA Style

Zongwei Liu, Xinglong Liu, Han Hao, Fuquan Zhao, Amer Ahmad Amer, Hassan Babiker. Research on the Critical Issues for Power Battery Reusing of New Energy Vehicles in China. Energies. 2020; 13 (8):1932.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zongwei Liu; Xinglong Liu; Han Hao; Fuquan Zhao; Amer Ahmad Amer; Hassan Babiker. 2020. "Research on the Critical Issues for Power Battery Reusing of New Energy Vehicles in China." Energies 13, no. 8: 1932.

Journal article
Published: 02 February 2020 in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
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The automatic emergency braking (AEB) system is an effective intelligent vehicle active safety system for avoiding certain types of collisions. This study develops a national-level safety impact evaluation model for this intelligent vehicle function, including the potential maximum impact and realistic impact. The evaluation model was firstly applied in China to provide insights into Chinese policymaking. Road traffic fatality and severe injury trends, the proportion of different collision types, the effectiveness of collision avoidance, and the AEB market penetration rates are considered in the potential maximum impact scenario. Furthermore, the AEB activation rate and the technology’s technical limitations, including its effectiveness in different weather, light, and speed conditions, are discussed in the realistic scenario. With a 100% market penetration rate, fatalities could be reduced by 13.2%, and injuries could be reduced by 9.1%. Based on China’s policy, the market penetration rate of intelligent vehicles with AEB is predicted to be 34.0% in 2025 and 60.3% in 2030. With this large market penetration rate increase of AEB, the reductions in fatalities and severe injuries are 903–2309 and 2025–5055 in 2025; and 1483–3789 and 3895–7835 in 2030, respectively. Considering AEB’s activation rate and its three main limitations, the adjusted realistic result is approximately 2/5 of the potential maximum result.

ACS Style

Hong Tan; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu; Amer Ahmad Amer; Hassan Babiker. Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) System Impact on Fatality and Injury Reduction in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2020, 17, 917 .

AMA Style

Hong Tan, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu, Amer Ahmad Amer, Hassan Babiker. Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) System Impact on Fatality and Injury Reduction in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17 (3):917.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hong Tan; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu; Amer Ahmad Amer; Hassan Babiker. 2020. "Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) System Impact on Fatality and Injury Reduction in China." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 3: 917.

Research article
Published: 22 January 2020 in Journal of Advanced Transportation
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With the improvement of living standards, the demand for residents’ travel has grown rapidly. At present, China has surpassed the U.S. to become the world’s largest vehicle sales country. By the end of 2018, there had been over 200 million private passenger cars in China. Meanwhile, the increase in the number of cars has also brought a series of other problems: energy consumption, air pollution, traffic congestion, etc. Therefore, some first-tier cities have successively introduced motor vehicle purchase restriction policies to constrain the surge of local private cars. However, existing researches have overemphasized the factors that promote the development of China’s motor vehicle market and ignored the importance of the purchase restriction policies. In this study, policies in Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Guangzhou are introduced, and their impacts on local private passenger car stock are analyzed. The results indicate that purchase restriction policies kept the car ownership per thousand people in these cities in a relatively stable level with growing economy. Therefore, as the number of cities with restriction policies increases, it is necessary to take those policies into consideration in the forecast of possession. Meanwhile, the local governments should still think over policy contents from more aspects, like number of issued plates every year, special measures for new energy vehicles, and travel demand of residents.

ACS Style

Feiqi Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Zongwei Liu; Han Hao. The Impact of Purchase Restriction Policy on Car Ownership in China’s Four Major Cities. Journal of Advanced Transportation 2020, 2020, 1 -14.

AMA Style

Feiqi Liu, Fuquan Zhao, Zongwei Liu, Han Hao. The Impact of Purchase Restriction Policy on Car Ownership in China’s Four Major Cities. Journal of Advanced Transportation. 2020; 2020 ():1-14.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Feiqi Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Zongwei Liu; Han Hao. 2020. "The Impact of Purchase Restriction Policy on Car Ownership in China’s Four Major Cities." Journal of Advanced Transportation 2020, no. : 1-14.

Journal article
Published: 30 December 2019 in Resources Policy
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Manganese is a necessary and irreplaceable metal resource for the steelmaking industry. The essentiality and non-substitutability make the vulnerability to supply restriction of manganese nonnegligible. With this concern, this study was conducted to present a global trade-linked material flow analysis (MFA) model of manganese for the year of 2017 to provide deep insight into its flow pattern. Using the MFA model, the global manganese flow in 305 categories of commodities within 249 countries was mapped. The results showed that 23.9 million tons (Mt) of manganese were supplied and used in 2017. An estimated 27.9 Mt of manganese contained in various commodities was traded between countries, 38% of which was contributed by the top ten trade flows. China, South Africa, Australia, Brazil, Gabon, the USA, India, Japan and Germany were the nine most important members of the global manganese trade flow community. The lack of a system for the complete recovery of Mn from end-of-life products and slag, and a trend towards increasing geographic concentration of Mn ore supplies, were identified as two areas of potential risk and concern. Corresponding policy recommendations are proposed to resolve these concerns. A more integrated recovery system of manganese needs to be considered, particularly for the developing lithium-ion battery applications. Establishment of national reserve needs to be put on the agenda for the large manganese consumers. High supply concentration of manganese refining and manufacturing stage, which is dominated by China, may need to be changed when prospective global manganese consumption structure changes.

ACS Style

Xin Sun; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. Insights into the global flow pattern of manganese. Resources Policy 2019, 65, 101578 .

AMA Style

Xin Sun, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu, Fuquan Zhao. Insights into the global flow pattern of manganese. Resources Policy. 2019; 65 ():101578.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xin Sun; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. 2019. "Insights into the global flow pattern of manganese." Resources Policy 65, no. : 101578.

Journal article
Published: 27 November 2019 in Nature Communications
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The majority of transport electrification studies, examining the demand and sustainability of critical metals, have focused on light-duty vehicles. Heavy-duty vehicles have often been excluded from the research scope due to their smaller vehicle stock and slower pace of electrification. This study fills this research gap by evaluating the lithium resource impacts from electrification of the heavy-duty segment at the global level. Our results show that a mass electrification of the heavy-duty segment on top of the light-duty segment would substantially increase the lithium demand and impose further strain on the global lithium supply. The significant impact is attributed to the large single-vehicle battery capacity required by heavy-duty vehicles and the expected battery replacement needed within the lifetime of heavy-duty vehicles. We suggest that the ambition of mass electrification in the heavy-duty segment should be treated with cautions for both policy makers and entrepreneurs.

ACS Style

Han Hao; Yong Geng; James E. Tate; Feiqi Liu; Kangda Chen; Xin Sun; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. Impact of transport electrification on critical metal sustainability with a focus on the heavy-duty segment. Nature Communications 2019, 10, 5398 .

AMA Style

Han Hao, Yong Geng, James E. Tate, Feiqi Liu, Kangda Chen, Xin Sun, Zongwei Liu, Fuquan Zhao. Impact of transport electrification on critical metal sustainability with a focus on the heavy-duty segment. Nature Communications. 2019; 10 (1):5398.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Han Hao; Yong Geng; James E. Tate; Feiqi Liu; Kangda Chen; Xin Sun; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. 2019. "Impact of transport electrification on critical metal sustainability with a focus on the heavy-duty segment." Nature Communications 10, no. 1: 5398.

Journal article
Published: 14 October 2019 in Materials Today Energy
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Lithium-ion batteries, as the essential technology for global energy transition, require the combined support of several metallic resources and the complicated supply chains that follow. The risk of supply disruptions to these resources has been widely observed and measured. However, system boundaries of previous studies were conventionally limited to the mine stage. Possible supply risks inherent in the downstream processing stages were not adequately taken into account. To fill this gap, we generalize the idea of supply risk to the whole supply chain to describe the comprehensive threats for the steady consumption of lithium-ion batteries. Based on such concept, this study assesses the risks of the lithium-ion battery related materials in the three major stages of the entire supply chain: mining, refining and manufacturing. Results indicate that lithium and cobalt are the most critical materials for lithium-ion battery industry. Risks hidden in the downstream stages of nickel and manganese should also not be overlooked. We further argue that for important energy-related materials with complicated supply chains, the risks should be identified and safeguarded comprehensively throughout the entire supply chain. Such work calls for further database establishment and analysis.

ACS Style

Xin Sun; Han Hao; Philipp Hartmann; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. Supply risks of lithium-ion battery materials: An entire supply chain estimation. Materials Today Energy 2019, 14, 100347 .

AMA Style

Xin Sun, Han Hao, Philipp Hartmann, Zongwei Liu, Fuquan Zhao. Supply risks of lithium-ion battery materials: An entire supply chain estimation. Materials Today Energy. 2019; 14 ():100347.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xin Sun; Han Hao; Philipp Hartmann; Zongwei Liu; Fuquan Zhao. 2019. "Supply risks of lithium-ion battery materials: An entire supply chain estimation." Materials Today Energy 14, no. : 100347.

Journal article
Published: 13 June 2019 in Sustainability
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The deployment of intelligent connected vehicles (ICVs) is regarded as a significant solution to improve road safety, transportation management, and energy efficiency. This study assessed the safety, traffic, environmental, and industrial economic benefits of ICV deployment in China under different scenarios. A bottom-up model was established to deal with these impacts within a unified framework, based on the existing theories and literature of ICVs’ cost–benefit analysis, as well as China’s most recent policies and statistics. The results indicate that the total benefits may reach 13.25 to 24.02 trillion renminbi (RMB) in 2050, while a cumulative benefit–cost ratio of 1.15 to 3.06 suggests high cost-effectiveness. However, if the government and industry only focus on their own interests, the break-even point may be delayed by several years. Hence, an effective business model is necessary to enhance public–private cooperation in ICV implementation. Meanwhile, the savings of travel time costs and fleet labor costs play an important part in all socioeconomic impacts. Therefore, the future design of ICVs should pay more attention to the utilization of in-vehicle time and the real substitution for human drivers.

ACS Style

Xu Kuang; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. Assessing the Socioeconomic Impacts of Intelligent Connected Vehicles in China: A Cost–Benefit Analysis. Sustainability 2019, 11, 3273 .

AMA Style

Xu Kuang, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu. Assessing the Socioeconomic Impacts of Intelligent Connected Vehicles in China: A Cost–Benefit Analysis. Sustainability. 2019; 11 (12):3273.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xu Kuang; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. 2019. "Assessing the Socioeconomic Impacts of Intelligent Connected Vehicles in China: A Cost–Benefit Analysis." Sustainability 11, no. 12: 3273.

Journal article
Published: 11 June 2019 in Energy Policy
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Autonomous vehicles are believed to be the next-generation technology for future societies. The energy and environmental impacts of autonomous vehicles have been realized to be important issues, but quantitative analysis is lacking. In this study, by using China's passenger vehicle fleet as an example, we evaluate the effects of autonomous vehicle deployment on greenhouse gas emissions in different scenarios of autonomous vehicle penetration rates and fuel consumption changes. A comprehensive literature review is conducted to support the study. Autonomous vehicles are found to potentially affect the total greenhouse gas emissions in multiple ways, including reducing vehicle ownership, increasing vehicle use intensity, and changing the vehicle fuel consumption rate. These impacts are mostly internally offset such that the overall impact of autonomous vehicle deployment on greenhouse gas emissions is not significant in the near-to mid-term. With a higher autonomous vehicle penetration rate achieved, in the optimistic scenario, a net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is expected to be realized. In addition, the fuel economy levels of autonomous vehicles are highly uncertain and cause major uncertainties in the simulation results. More field tests and evidence are needed to improve the evaluation reliability.

ACS Style

Feiqi Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Zongwei Liu; Han Hao. Can autonomous vehicle reduce greenhouse gas emissions? A country-level evaluation. Energy Policy 2019, 132, 462 -473.

AMA Style

Feiqi Liu, Fuquan Zhao, Zongwei Liu, Han Hao. Can autonomous vehicle reduce greenhouse gas emissions? A country-level evaluation. Energy Policy. 2019; 132 ():462-473.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Feiqi Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Zongwei Liu; Han Hao. 2019. "Can autonomous vehicle reduce greenhouse gas emissions? A country-level evaluation." Energy Policy 132, no. : 462-473.