Studies show that the autonomic nervous system (ANS) has an important impact on health in general. In response to environmental demands, homeostatic processes are often compromised, therefore determining an increase in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS)’s functions and a decrease in the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)’s functions. In modern societies, chronic stress associated with an unhealthy lifestyle contributes to ANS dysfunction. In this review, we provide a brief introduction to the ANS network, its connections to the HPA axis and its stress responses and give an overview of the critical implications of ANS in health and disease—focused specifically on the immune system, cardiovascular, oxidative stress and metabolic dysregulation. The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA), the SNS and more recently the PNS have been identified as regulating the immune system. The HPA axis and PNS have anti-inflammatory effects and the SNS has been shown to have both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects. The positive impact of physical exercise (PE) is well known and has been studied by many researchers, but its negative impact has been less studied. Depending on the type, duration and individual characteristics of the person doing the exercise (age, gender, disease status, etc.), PE can be considered a physiological stressor. The negative impact of PE seems to be connected with the oxidative stress induced by effort.

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is involved in various processes, including brain plasticity, learning and memory, neuronal development, nociception, inflammation, appetite regulation, digestion, metabolism, energy balance, motility, and regulation of stress and emotions. Physical exercise (PE) is considered a valuable non-pharmacological therapy that is an immediately available and cost-effective method with a lot of health benefits, one of them being the activation of the endogenous cannabinoids. Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are generated as a response to high-intensity activities and can act as short-term circuit breakers, generating antinociceptive responses for a short and variable period of time. A runner’s high is an ephemeral feeling some sport practitioners experience during endurance activities, such as running. The release of eCBs during sustained physical exercise appears to be involved in triggering this phenomenon. The last decades have been characterized by an increased interest in this emotional state induced by exercise, as it is believed to alleviate pain, induce mild sedation, increase euphoric levels, and have anxiolytic effects. This review provides information about the current state of knowledge about endocannabinoids and physical effort and also an overview of the studies published in the specialized literature about this subject.

Oxidative stress (OS) is an important factor in the pathophysiology of numerous neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, cerebrovascular pathology or Alzheimer’s disease. OS also significantly influences progression among the various neurodegenerative disorders. The imbalance between the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the body’s capacity to neutralize these toxic byproducts renders the brain susceptible to oxidative injury. Increased amounts of ROS can result in cellular malfunction, apoptosis and neurodegeneration. They also represent a substantial factor in mitochondrial dysfunction, a defining characteristic of neurodegenerative disorders. Comprehending the fundamental mechanisms of OS and its interactions with mitochondrial function, neuroinflammation and cellular protective pathways becomes essential for formulating targeted therapeutics to maintain brain health and reduce the impacts of neurodegeneration. We address recent highlights on the role of OS in brain function in terms of significance for neuronal health and the progression of neurodegenerative disorders.

Cardiovascular system presents cortical modulation. Post-stroke outcome can be highly influenced by autonomic nervous system disruption. Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis is a simple non-invasive method to assess sympatho-vagal balance. The purpose of this study was to investigate cardiac autonomic activity in ischemic stroke patients and to asses HRV nonlinear parameters beside linear ones. We analyzed HRV parameters in 15 right and 15 left middle cerebral artery ischemic stroke patients, in rest condition and during challenge (standing and deep breathing). Data were compared with 15 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. There was an asymmetric response after autonomic stimulation tests depending on the cortical lateralization in ischemic stroke patients. In resting state, left hemisphere stroke patients presented enhanced parasympathetic control of the heart rate (higher values for RMSSD, pNN50 and HF in normalized units). Right hemisphere ischemic stroke patients displayed a reduced cardiac parasympathetic modulation during deep breathing test. Beside time and frequency domain, using short-term ECG monitoring, cardiac parasympathetic modulation can also be assessed by nonlinear parameter SD1, that presented strong positive correlation with time and frequency domain parameters RMSSD, pNN50, HFnu, while DFA α1 index presented negative correlation with the same indices and positive correlation with the LFnu and LF/HF ratio, indicating a positive association with the sympatho-vagal balance. Cardiac monitoring in clinical routine using HRV analysis in order to identify autonomic imbalance may highlight cardiac dysfunctions, thus helping preventing potential cardiovascular complications, especially in right hemisphere ischemic stroke patients with sympathetic hyperactivation.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is characterized by central obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and chronic inflammation, significantly increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Effective management of MetS is critical, with exercise being a key intervention. This review analyzed the effects of different exercise intensities—low, moderate, and high-intensity interval training (HIIT)—on metabolic health, oxidative stress (OS), inflammation, and cardiovascular function. A search of Medline, PEDro, and EBSCO identified 2251 articles, with 159 studies published between 1999 and 2025 included after screening. Low-intensity exercise improved insulin sensitivity, reduced OS markers (e.g., MDA, 8-OHdG), and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity. Moderate-intensity exercise showed similar benefits with notable reductions in inflammatory markers (e.g., IL-1β, TNF-α). HIIT promoted fat loss and improved metabolic markers but temporarily increased OS and inflammation. Dietary strategies also play a critical role. The Mediterranean diet and Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diets are well established, emphasizing nutrient-dense foods like unsaturated fats and fiber to reduce inflammation and manage weight. The ketogenic diet (KD), a high-fat, low-carbohydrate approach, has recently gained attention for its metabolic benefits. KD induces ketosis, improving insulin sensitivity, reducing triglycerides, and enhancing fat oxidation. Studies show KD effectively reduces body weight and glucose levels, though long-term adherence and nutrient deficiencies remain challenges. Intermittent fasting also showed potential benefits, though effects on glucose metabolism were inconsistent. This review underscores the need for tailored approaches combining exercise, diet, and fasting to optimize MetS outcomes, offering integrative strategies for prevention and management.

Atherosclerosis remains the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide characterized by the deposition of lipids and fibrous elements in the form of atheroma plaques in vascular areas which are hemodynamically overloaded. The global burden of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is steadily increasing and is considered the largest known non-infectious pandemic. The management of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is increasing the cost of health care worldwide, which is a concern for researchers and physicians and has caused them to strive to find effective long-term strategies to improve the efficiency of treatments by managing conventional risk factors. Primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is the preferred method to reduce cardiovascular risk. Fasting, a Mediterranean diet, and caloric restriction can be considered useful clinical tools. The protective impact of physical exercise over the cardiovascular system has been studied in recent years with the intention of explaining the mechanisms involved; the increase in heat shock proteins, antioxidant enzymes and regulators of cardiac myocyte proliferation concentration seem to be the molecular and biochemical shifts that are involved. Developing new therapeutic strategies such as vagus nerve stimulation, either to prevent or slow the disease’s onset and progression, will surely have a profound effect on the lives of millions of people.