Mass transport conversion to an electrified powertrain requires suitable strategies for processing electric vehicle (EV) batteries after their intended first service life. Due to aging mechanisms, EV batteries lose capacity over their period of use and become unsuitable for their initial application at some point. However, to expand their lifetime and to meet the sustainability demand for EVs, the usage of these batteries in so-called Re-X applications is under intense discussion. Until now, downstream processing has been subject to high uncertainty regarding the expected advances. While many issues on the technical and ecological side have been at least partially resolved, the economics are still under assessment. For this reason, this paper intends to give a well-based outlook on the costs and benefits of three chosen scenarios: reuse, repurpose, and recycle. It is expected that under the given national policies and global market conditions, growing quantities of retired EV batteries will return from the transportation markets. Consequently, the market potential for retired batteries in downstream applications will significantly increase, as well as calls for stable solutions.

Given the critical importance of lithium-ion batteries in the electric vehicle market and the limited availability of critical raw materials like lithium, cobalt, and graphite, effective and profitable battery recycling processes are vital for reducing European dependency on imports and enhancing the sustainability of batteries. The analysis of economic and structural challenges of lithium-ion battery recycling is based on expert interviews with 13 stakeholders in the battery value chain, including vehicle manufacturers, logistics providers and recycling companies. The investigated processes include battery collection, classification, transport, intermediate storage, mechanical treatment, and chemical processing. The findings confirm that current recycling practices are not profitable: transport can account for up to 70% of total recycling costs, chemical processing infrastructure requires investments of around 23 euros per ton of input material, and many recycling plants operate at less than 10% of their capacity due to insufficient battery return volumes. To address these challenges, a decentralized structure is proposed, with regional pretreatment facilities and centralized chemical processing hubs, to reduce transport distances, lower costs, and improve scalability.

As lithium-ion batteries increasingly become a cornerstone of the automotive sector, the importance of efficient and cost-effective battery production has become paramount. Even though electric vehicle battery cells are produced in three different geometries—cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch—no specific model exists to compare the manufacturing costs of producing cells with different geometries but similar performances. In this paper, we present a process-based cost model with a cell design functionality which enables design and manufacturing cost prediction of user-defined battery cells.

The growing demand and market penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) have led to an expansion in the size of the market for used EVs, accompanied by a continuous increase in the return rate of aging battery systems. Consequently, a second-hand market for aged battery systems, known as second-life batteries, is slowly emerging. Understanding this market is crucial for enabling a functioning circular economy for batteries. This paper analyzes the market mechanisms influencing price formation for used goods, drawing parallels to the largest second-hand market, the used car market, and applies them to the second-life battery market. By examining these mechanisms, insights are provided into the dynamics of the second-life battery market, facilitating the development of strategies to optimize resource utilization and sustainability in the EV industry. Finally, the second-life battery price index is introduced, increasing the transparency of prices for lithium-ion batteries and the circular economy.

Zusammenfassung Die Nutzungsdauer von Batterien wird durch Konzepte zu „Second Life“, Repair, Refurbishment und Remanufacturing verlängert. Diese Ansätze befähigen dazu, die maximale Alterung aus den elektrochemischen Energiespeichern herauszuholen, bevor sie zyklisch oder kalendarisch ihr Lebensende erreichen. Zur Schließung des Batteriekreislaufs folgt die Zuführung der Akkus zum Recycling-Prozess. Die politische Forcierung des Batterie-Recyclings wird im nachstehenden Abschn. 43.1 erörtert. Es folgt ein Überblick zu den unterschiedlichen Batterie-Recycling-Verfahren, bevor der aktuelle Stand der Technik im Detail vorgestellt wird.

Zusammenfassung Elektromobilität besitzt das Potenzial, den Verkehr vollständig CO₂-frei, abgasfrei und ressourceneffizient zu gestalten. Da der Verkehrssektor im Jahr 2019 nach der Energiewirtschaft und der Industrie noch für ein Fünftel der deutschen Treibhausgasemissionen verantwortlich war, ist schnelles Handeln unabdingbar. Die Vorteile der Elektromobilität wurden nach einigem Zögern der Industrie und der Politik in den 2010er-Jahren nun gemeinhin erkannt. Die E-Mobilität ist längst keine Zukunftstechnologie mehr, sondern hat mittlerweile den Weg aus der Grundlagenforschung hinein in die Großserie gefunden. Ausgehend von der aktuellen Marktsituation erörtert das folgende Kapitel die Perspektiven und die aktuellen Bestrebungen der unterschiedlichen Akteure – Verbraucher, Politik, Automobilindustrie und Energiewirtschaft.