Objectives: Ancient DNA provides an opportunity to separate the genetic and environmental bases of complex traits by allowing direct estimation of genetic values in ancient individuals. Here, we test whether genetic scores for height in ancient individuals are predictive of their actual height, as inferred from skeletal remains. We estimate the contributions of genetic and environmental variables to observed phenotypic variation as a first step towards quantifying individual sources of morphological variation.Materials and methods: We collected stature estimates and femur lengths from West Eurasian skeletal remains with published genome‐wide ancient DNA data (n = 182, dating from 33,000–850 BP). We also recorded genetic sex, genetic ancestry, date and paleoclimate data for each individual, and δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N stable isotope values where available (n = 69). We tested different methods of calculating polygenic scores, using summary statistics from four different genome wide association studies (GWAS) for height, and three methods for imputing missing genotypes.Results: A polygenic score for height predicts 6.3% of the variance in femur length in our data (n = 132, SD = 0.0069%, p = 0.001), controlling for sex, ancestry, and date. This is consistent with the predictive power of height PRS in present‐day populations and the low coverage of ancient samples. Comparatively, sex explains about 17% of the variance in femur length in our sample. Environmental effects also likely play a role in variation, independent of genetics, though with considerable uncertainty (longitude: R² = 0.033, SD = 0.008, p = 0.011). Genotype imputation did not improve polygenic prediction, and results varied based on the GWAS summary statistics we used.Discussion: Polygenic scores explain a small but significant proportion of the variance in height in ancient individuals, though not enough to make useful predictions of individual phenotypes. However, environmental variables also contribute to phenotypic outcomes and understanding their interaction with direct genetic predictions will provide a framework with which to model how plasticity and genetic changes ultimately combine to drive adaptation and evolution.

Contemporary accounts of battles are often incomplete or even erroneous because they reflect the—often biased—viewpoints of the authors. Battlefield archaeology faces the task of compiling an historical analysis of a battle and of gathering all the available facts. Besides cultural historical evidence and artefacts, the human remains of those who have fallen in battle also provide invaluable information. In studying mass graves from a military context, the injury types and patterns are significant. They allow us to reconstruct the circumstances surrounding the soldiers’ deaths and provide information on the hostilities that occurred on the battlefield. One such mass grave was discovered in 2011 at Lützen, Saxony-Anhalt (Germany). Based on its geographical location and on the results obtained from archaeological examinations carried out in the area, the grave could be dated to the Thirty Years War (1618–1648). Further archaeological research confirmed that the dead had been soldiers from the Battle of Lützen (1632). The mass grave was block-lifted and then comprehensively examined at the State Museum of Prehistory in Halle (Saale). As well as osteological examinations to determine age, sex, height, state of health, i.e. diseases or injuries, imaging methods were also employed and histological and isotopic analyses carried out. The focus of this study was on the injuries sustained by the soldiers both prior to and during the battle. The results revealed that the 47 deceased had been between the ages of 15 and 50 when they died. Numerous healed injuries showed that the men had often been involved in violent encounters. Approximately three in every four soldiers had injuries that could have been fatal. Wounds inflicted by handguns, particularly to the skull, were predominant. The integrative analysis of the archaeological and anthropological data allowed us to conclude that the majority had been killed during a cavalry attack.

Dental health is closely linked to an individual’s health and diet. This bioarcheological study presents dental caries and stable isotope data obtained from prehistoric individuals (n = 101) from three Early Neolithic sites (c. 5500-4800 BCE) in central Germany. Dental caries and ante-mortem tooth loss (AMTL) were recorded and related to life history traits such as biological sex and age at death. Further, we correlate evidence on caries to carbon and nitrogen isotope data obtained from 83 individuals to assess the relationship between diet and caries. In 68.3% of the adults, carious lesions were present, with 10.3% of teeth affected. If AMTL is considered, the values increase by about 3%. The prevalence of subadults (18.4%) was significantly lower, with 1.8% carious teeth. The number of carious teeth correlated significantly with age but not sex. The isotopic data indicated an omnivorous terrestrial diet composed of domestic plants and animal derived protein but did not correlate with the prevalence of carious lesions. The combined evidence from caries and isotope analysis suggests a prevalence of starchy foods such as cereals in the diet of these early farmers, which aligns well with observations from other Early Neolithic sites but contrasts to Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age populations in Germany.