Objectives: The aim of this paper was to provide evidence for the impact of prenatal sex steroid exposure on prenatal and postnatal body size parameters, and muscle strength in children. Methods: The following anthropometric data were studied in a group of 1148 children (536 boys and 612 girls) aged 6–13 years: the 2D:4D digit ratio, birth weight and length, and birth head and chest circumference. Postnatal parameters (6–13 years) included body weight and height, BMI, waist and hip circumference, WHR, as well as grip strength in both hands. All parameters that required it were adjusted for sex and gestational or chronological age. A general linear model, Pearson’s correlation, t-statistics and Cohen’s Δ were used in statistical analysis. Results: Among birth size parameters, only birth weight was significantly negatively correlated with the 2D:4D digit ratio in children. Higher (feminized) digit ratios were significantly correlated with postnatal parameters such as body weight, BMI, and waist and hip circumference (positively), as well as hand grip strength–a proxy for muscular strength (negatively). Conclusion: Problems with maintaining adequate body size parameters and muscle strength may be programmed in fetal life and predicted on the basis of the 2D:4D digit ratio. Body weight at birth and in early ontogenesis are additive correlates of the 2D:4D ratio. The present findings suggest that the 2D:4D digit ratio is related to postnatal phenotypes such as birth weight, overweight, and obesity as well as muscle strength in 6–13-year-old children of both sexes.

Background: Migraine is a common neurological disease with extremely debilitating, but fully reversible symptoms. Women suffer from migraine more often than men. It was assumed that fluctuation of oestrogen level during menstrual cycle is one of many factors responsible for more frequent migraine attacks. The second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is considered as an indicator of prenatal sex steroids. Balance of prenatal androgens (testosterone) and oestrogen has been studied in numerous diseases that are affected by hormones. However, the relationship between migraine and the sex steroids balance in prenatal development is still unexplained. The aim of this paper is to provide an evidence of relationship between prenatal oestrogen and testosterone exposure following 2D:4D digit ratio, and migraine prevalence in adults. Methods: We examined a group of 151 adults (33 males, 118 females) with migraine and a control group of 111 adults (45 males, 66 females). 2D:4D digit ratio of both hands was measured using sliding Vernier calliper. Results: Significant differences were found in the right hand. Female migraineurs had lower value of 2D:4D ratio than the control group and the right 2D:4D was lower than left 2D:4D (Δ2D:4D), suggesting prenatal testosterone dominance. The opposite relationship was observed in males. Male migraineurs had higher value of 2D:4D ratio and Δ2D:4D was greater than the control group, suggesting prenatal oestrogen dominance. Conclusions: Our results suggest that depending on sex, different proportion of prenatal sex steroids might be a risk factor of migraine in adults. Women with migraine were presumably exposed in prenatal life to higher testosterone levels relative to oestrogen, while men with migraine were probably exposed in prenatal life to higher levels of oestrogen relative to testosterone.

Overweight and obesity are significant public health concerns, affecting pregnant women and potentially leading to numerous complications for both maternal and neonatal health. The aim of this study is to estimate how pre-pregnancy overweight and obesity, as well as gestational weight gain, influence pregnancy outcomes and neonatal health in Poland. The study material consisted of data from 2878 women aged 16–46 years from hospitals in Warsaw and Krosno. The analysis included data on the course of singleton pregnancies and the biological condition of the newborns, correlated with pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index (BMI) and gestational weight gain (GWG), which were compared to the standards set by the Institute of Medicine (IOM). Factor that significantly influences pre-pregnancy BMI and GWG is the number of pregnancies. For first-born women pre-pregnancy BMI was significantly lower than that of women giving birth for the second, third and subsequent times (ANOVA p < 0.0001), at the same time, the increase in weight in this group was the greatest (ANOVA p < 0.0001). The study found that pre-pregnancy BMI correlates more strongly with the occurrence of gestational diabetes than GWG above IOM recommendations (regression: p < 0.0001, R = 0.112 vs. p < 0.0001, R = 0.104). Analogous correlations were observed for the incidence of gestational hypertension and termination of pregnancy by caesarean section. Birth weight and length are significantly affected by both pre-pregnancy BMI and GWG but the effect of weight change is stronger (birth weight - pre-pregnancy BMI regression p < 0.0001, R = 0.116; GWG p < 0.0001, R = 0.248; birth length - pre-pregnancy BMI regression p < 0.0001, R = 0.087; GWG p < 0.0001, R = 0.180). An analogous relationship was observed for the presence of macrosomia. For APGAR scores, an inverse relationship was observed; while GWG did not show a significant relationship with the first minute score, perinatal neonatal status was significantly related to the mother’s pre-pregnancy BMI (regression p = 0.0006). Similarly, pre-pregnancy maternal BMI > 25 significantly increased the odds of perinatal injury and breastfeeding difficulties.

This pilot study aimed primarily to investigate the association between perceived physical literacy (PL) and participation in organised sports and self-organised physical activity (PA) in female youth athletes and non-athletes. A secondary purpose was to investigate the association between perceived PL and physical fitness among female youth athletes. A convenient sample of 18 female youth soccer athletes (age: 14.56 ± 1.42 years) and 18 female youth non-athletes (age: 14.22 ± 1.22) underwent anthropometric measurements and responded to PL and PA questionnaires. The athletes completed physical fitness tests (e.g., cardiopulmonary, isokinetic, handgrip, and jump tests). The results indicated that the female athletes presented significantly higher scores for perceived PL and self-organised PA compared to the non-athletes. The PL components ‘sense of self and self-confidence’ and ‘knowledge and understanding’ were significantly associated with self-organised PA in both the athletes and the non-athletes, as well as with organised sports. An association was found between the total PL score for the athletes and the squat jump (r = 0.50), flexibility (r = 0.59), and left hamstring (r = 0.51) physical tests. The positive association between the self-perceived PL of female youth and their involvement in both organised sports and self-organised PA may help them fulfil their potential and also value and take responsibility for getting involved in PA for life.

Introduction: Prenatal period is the key time in human development. Many prenatal factors are well-known and increase the risk of developing diseases’ after birth. Few studies indicated the link between the prenatal period and the prevalence of migraine in childhood and adolescence so far. We decided to broaden current knowledge and investigate whether the prenatal factors influence the prevalence of migraine in adulthood. The objective of this study is to provide evidence of relationship between in utero environment and risk of migraine.Methods: In total 266 females (136 in the migraine group, 130 in the control group) and 80 males (35 in the migraine group, 45 in the control group), aged 18–65 participated in the study. The quality of prenatal environment was characterized on the basis of mother’s and father’s education, tobacco smoke exposure, alcohol consumption, and traumatic event during pregnancy, which are considered as prenatal factors and affect on fetal development.Results: Migraine occurrence in adulthood was significantly associated with maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy (OR 3.42, 95% CI 1.54–7.61, p = 0.036) and traumatic event during pregnancy (OR 2.27, 95% CI 1.24–4.13, p = 0.020).Discussion: Our study suggests that the fetal programming effect of tobacco smoking exposure and maternal trauma is not limited to prenatal life and is suggested as having a role in adulthood. Our findings support evidence that migraine adulthood can be partly influenced by early life conditions.