There are a number of pressing problems mankind is facing today that could, at least in part, be resolved by space systems. These include capabilities for fast and far-reaching telecommunication, surveying of resources and climate, and sustaining global information networks, to name but a few. Not surprisingly, increasing efforts are now devoted to building a strong near-Earth satellite infrastructure, with plans to extend the sphere of active life to orbital space and, later, to the Moon and Mars if not further. The realization of these aspirations demands novel and more efficient means of propulsion. At present, it is not only the heavy launch systems that are fully reliant on thermodynamic principles for propulsion. Satellites and spacecraft still widely use gas-based thrusters or chemical engines as their primary means of propulsion. Nonetheless, similar to other transportation systems where the use of electrical platforms has expanded rapidly, space propulsion technologies are also experiencing a shift toward electric thrusters that do not feature the many limitations intrinsic to the thermodynamic systems. Most importantly, electric and plasma thrusters have a theoretical capacity to deliver virtually any impulse, the latter being ultimately limited by the speed of light. Rapid progress in the field driven by consolidated efforts from industry and academia has brought all-electric space systems closer to reality, yet there are still obstacles that need addressing before we can take full advantage of this promising family of propulsion technologies. In this paper, we briefly outline the most recent successes in the development of plasma-based space propulsion systems and present our view of future trends, opportunities, and challenges in this rapidly growing field.

A reduced-order numerical model describing the plasma in an orificed hollow cathode is presented as a quick tool for the design of thermionic cathodes. A time-independent, volume-averaged model is developed to determine plasma properties, wall temperatures, and cathode lifetime without requiring experimental data as input. A system of particle and energy balance equations is numerically solved without invoking a Saha-type equilibrium under the hypothesis of a direct-impact ionization process. Further, a lumped-parameter thermal model is coupled with the plasma model to estimate the temperature profile along the cathode axis and the emitter lifetime. The obtained results capture most of the characteristic features of this class of hollow cathodes as compared with the available experimental data. In addition, the model gives insight into the most important power deposition processes affecting the emitter and orifice regions. The effect of the geometry on both plasma parameters and cathode performance is discussed to suggest design guidelines for the development of state-of-the-art hollow cathodes.

Hollow cathodes are electron sources used for the gas ionization and the beam neutralization in both ion and Hall effect thrusters (HETs). A reduction of power and propellant consumption from the cathode is particularly needed in small satellite applications, where power and mass budgets are inherently limited. Concurrently, the interest in high-power HETs is increasingly fostered for a number of space applications, including final positioning and station-keeping of Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites, spacecraft transfers from Low Earth Orbit (LEO) to GEO, and deep-space exploration missions. As such, several hollow cathodes have been developed and tested at Sitael, each conceived for a specific power class of thrusters. A numerical model was used during the cathode design to define the geometry, in accordance with the thruster unit specifications in terms of discharge current, mass flow rate, and lifetime. Lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) hollow cathodes were successfully developed for HETs with discharge power ranging from 100 W to 20 kW. Experimental campaigns were carried out in both stand-alone and coupled configurations, to verify the operation of the cathodes and validate the numerical model. The comparison between experimental and theoretical results are presented, offering a sound framework to drive the design of future hollow cathodes.

The renewed interest in space exploration has led to the growth in research efforts pertaining to advanced space propulsion systems, including highly efficient electric propulsion systems. Although already tested in space many decades ago and being currently employed on various space platforms and thousands of satellites, these systems are yet to reach their full potential for applications on orbit and in deep space. One specific feature of space electric propulsion is the large diversity of physical processes used in this technology, which is not typical for many other types of propulsion systems used in transport, such as those used by airplanes or automobiles. Various physical processes and mechanisms underpin different electric propulsion technologies and should be integrated to drive the future science and technology of space electric propulsion systems. This opinion article briefly highlights this feature of space electric propulsion and outlines some challenges and opportunities that follow from this diversity.

A model to predict the plasma properties inside a thermionic hollow cathode as a function of operational conditions and geometry is presented. The hollow cathode features a lanthanum hexaboride (LaB₆) insert, which is capable of emitting current densities as high as 10⁵ Am^-2 at temperatures of ~1900 K, along with a tantalum orifice plate located at the downstream end of the cathode tube. The model self-consistently computes the plasma parameters in both the emitter and orifice regions. A simple semiempirical relation is suggested to evaluate the plasma penetration depth in the cathode interior, which is of primary importance to establish the plasma conditions. The heat transfer mechanisms and the related temperature gradients along the cathode are evaluated with the aid of a dedicated thermal model, which is coupled to the plasma model and accounts for temperature-dependent material properties. A parametric study of the cathode performance was conducted to assess the dependence of the power consumption and operational lifetime on discharge current and mass flow rate, as well as on the geometry. The results are in good agreement with both theoretical and experimental trends found in the literature as well as with experimental data collected by Alta. Further developments will include a deeper investigation into the cathode erosion phenomena, along with a broader comparison with empirical data.