NMDA receptor activation promotes endocytosis of AMPA receptors, which is an important mechanism underlying long-term synaptic depression. The pH-sensitive GFP variant pHluorin fused to the N terminus of GluA2 (pH-GluA2) has been used to assay NMDA-mediated AMPA receptor endocytosis and recycling. Here, we demonstrate that in somatic and dendritic regions of hippocampal neurons a large fraction of the fluorescent signal originates from intracellular pH-GluA2, and that the decline in fluorescence in response to NMDA and AMPA primarily describes an intracellular acidification, which quenches the pHluorin signal from intracellular receptor pools. Neurons expressing an endoplasmic reticulum-retained mutant of GluA2 (pH-GluA2 ΔC49) displayed a larger response to NMDA than neurons expressing wild-type pH-GluA2. A similar NMDA-elicited decline in pHluorin signal was observed by expressing cytosolic pHluorin alone without fusion to GluA2 (cyto-pHluorin). Intracellular acidification in response to NMDA was further confirmed by using the ratiometric pH indicator carboxy-SNARF-1. The NMDA-induced decline was followed by rapid recovery of the fluorescent signal from both cyto-pHluorin and pH-GluA2. The recovery was sodium-dependent and sensitive to Na ⁺ /H ⁺ -exchanger (NHE) inhibitors. Moreover, recovery was more rapid after shRNA-mediated knockdown of the GluA2 binding PDZ domain-containing protein interacting with C kinase 1 (PICK1). Interestingly, the accelerating effect of PICK1 knockdown on the fluorescence recovery was eliminated in the presence of the NHE1 inhibitor zoniporide. Our results indicate that the pH-GluA2 recycling assay is an unreliable assay for studying AMPA receptor trafficking and also suggest a role for PICK1 in regulating intracellular pH via modulation of NHE activity.

Rab2 is a conserved Rab GTPase with a well-established role in secretory pathway function and phagocytosis. Here we demonstrate that Drosophila Rab2 is recruited to late endosomal membranes, where it controls the fusion of LAMP-containing biosynthetic carriers and lysosomes to late endosomes. In contrast, the lysosomal GTPase Gie/Arl8 is only required for late endosome-lysosome fusion, but not for the delivery of LAMP to the endocytic pathway. We also find that Rab2 is required for the fusion of autophagosomes to the endolysosomal pathway, but not for the biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles. Surprisingly, Rab2 does not rely on HOPS-mediated vesicular fusion for recruitment to late endosomal membranes. Our work suggests that Drosophila Rab2 is a central regulator of the endolysosomal and macroautophagic/autophagic pathways by controlling the major heterotypic fusion processes at the late endosome.

The dorsal (DS) and ventral striatum (VS) receive dopaminergic projections that control motor functions and reward-related behavior. It remains poorly understood how dopamine release dynamics across different temporal scales in these regions are coupled to behavioral outcomes. Here, we employ the dopamine sensor dLight1.3b together with multiregion fiber photometry and machine learning-based analysis to decode dopamine dynamics across the striatum during self-paced exploratory behavior in mice. Our data show a striking coordination of rapidly fluctuating signal in the DS, carrying information across dopamine levels, with a slower signal in the VS, consisting mainly of slow-paced transients. Importantly, these release dynamics correlated with discrete behavioral motifs, such as turns, running, and grooming on a subsecond-to-minute time scale. Disruption of dopamine dynamics with cocaine caused randomization of action selection sequencing and disturbance of DS–VS coordination. The data suggest that distinct dopamine dynamics of DS and VS jointly encode behavioral sequences during unconstrained activity with DS modulating the stringing together of actions and VS the signal to initiate and sustain the selected action.

BAR domains are dimeric protein modules that sense, induce, and stabilize lipid membrane curvature. Here, we show that membrane curvature sensing (MCS) directs cellular localization and function of the BAR domain protein PICK1. In PICK1, and the homologous proteins ICA69 and arfaptin2, we identify an amphipathic helix N-terminal to the BAR domain that mediates MCS. Mutational disruption of the helix in PICK1 impaired MCS without affecting membrane binding per se. In insulin-producing INS-1E cells, super-resolution microscopy revealed that disruption of the helix selectively compromised PICK1 density on insulin granules of high curvature during their maturation. This was accompanied by reduced hormone storage in the INS-1E cells. In Drosophila, disruption of the helix compromised growth regulation. By demonstrating size-dependent binding on insulin granules, our finding highlights the function of MCS for BAR domain proteins in a biological context distinct from their function, e.g., at the plasma membrane during endocytosis.

Protein Interacting with C Kinase 1 (PICK1) is a Bin/Amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) domain protein involved in AMPA receptor trafficking. Here, we identify a selective role for PICK1 in the biogenesis of large, dense core vesicles (LDCVs) in mouse chromaffin cells. PICK1 colocalized with syntaxin-6, a marker for immature granules. In chromaffin cells isolated from a PICK1 knockout (KO) mouse the amount of exocytosis was reduced, while release kinetics and Ca²⁺ sensitivity were unaffected. Vesicle-fusion events had a reduced frequency and released lower amounts of transmitter per vesicle (i.e., reduced quantal size). This was paralleled by a reduction in the mean single-vesicle capacitance, estimated by averaging time-locked capacitance traces. EM confirmed that LDCVs were fewer and of markedly reduced size in the PICK1 KO, demonstrating that all phenotypes can be explained by reductions in vesicle number and size, whereas the fusion competence of generated vesicles was unaffected by the absence of PICK1. Viral rescue experiments demonstrated that long-term re-expression of PICK1 is necessary to restore normal vesicular content and secretion, while short-term overexpression is ineffective, consistent with an upstream role for PICK1. Disrupting lipid binding of the BAR domain (2K-E mutation) or of the PDZ domain (CC-GG mutation) was sufficient to reproduce the secretion phenotype of the null mutant. The same mutations are known to eliminate PICK1 function in receptor trafficking, indicating that the multiple functions of PICK1 involve a conserved mechanism. Summarized, our findings demonstrate that PICK1 functions in vesicle biogenesis and is necessary to maintain normal vesicle numbers and size.