Nitrogen-containing organic compounds (NOCs) substantially contribute to light-absorbing organic aerosols, although the atmospheric processes responsible for the secondary formation of these compounds are poorly understood. In this study, seasonal atmospheric processing of NOCs is investigated using single-particle mass spectrometry in urban Guangzhou from 2013 to 2014. The relative abundance of NOCs is found to be strongly enhanced when they are internally mixed with photochemically produced secondary oxidized organics (i.e., formate, acetate, pyruvate, methylglyoxal, glyoxylate, oxalate, malonate, and succinate) and ammonium (${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ ). Moreover, both the hourly detected particle number and the relative abundance of NOCs are highly correlated with those of secondary oxidized organics and ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ . Therefore, it is hypothesized that the secondary formation of NOCs is most likely linked to oxidized organics and ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ . Results from both multiple linear regression analysis and positive matrix factorization analysis further show that the relative abundance of NOCs could be well predicted (R² > 0.7, p < 0.01) by oxidized organics and ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ . Interestingly, the relative abundance of NOCs is inversely correlated with ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ , whereas their number fractions are positively correlated. This result suggests that although the formation of NOCs does require the involvement of ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{3}}/{\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ , the relative amount of ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ may have a negative effect. Higher humidity and NO_x likely facilitates the conversion of oxidized organics to NOCs. Due to the relatively high oxidized organics and ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{3}}/{\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ , the relative contributions of NOCs in summer and fall were higher than those in spring and winter. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first direct field observation study reporting a close association between NOCs and both oxidized organics and ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ . These findings have substantial implications for the role of ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ in the atmosphere, particularly in models that predict the evolution and deposition of NOCs. Highlights. NOCs were highly internally mixed with photochemically produced secondary oxidized organics NOCs could be well predicted by the variations of these oxidized organics and ${\mathrm{NH}}_{\mathrm{4}}^{+}$ Higher relative humidity and NO_x may facilitate the conversion of these oxidized organics to NOCs

Black carbon (BC) aerosols have been widely recognized as a vital climate forcer in the atmosphere. Amplification of light absorption can occur due to coatings on BC during atmospheric aging, an effect that remains uncertain in accessing the radiative forcing of BC. Existing studies on the absorption enhancement factor (E_abs) have poor coverage on both seasonal and diurnal scales. In this study, we applied a recently developed minimum R squared (MRS) method, which can cover both seasonal and diurnal scales, for E_abs quantification. Using field measurement data in Guangzhou, the aims of this study are to explore (1) the temporal dynamics of BC optical properties at seasonal (wet season, 31 July–10 September; dry season, 15 November 2017–15 January 2018) and diel scales (1 h time resolution) in the typical urban environment and (2) the influencing factors on E_abs temporal variability. Mass absorption efficiency at 520 nm by primary aerosols (MAE_p520) determined by the MRS method exhibited a strong seasonality (8.6 m² g⁻¹ in the wet season and 16.8 m² g⁻¹ in the dry season). E_abs520 was higher in the wet season (1.51±0.50) and lower in the dry season (1.29±0.28). Absorption Ångström exponent (AAE_470–660) in the dry season (1.46±0.12) was higher than that in the wet season (1.37±0.10). Collective evidence showed that the active biomass burning (BB) in the dry season effectively altered the optical properties of BC, leading to elevated MAE, MAE_p and AAE in the dry season compared to those in the wet season. Diurnal E_abs520 was positively correlated with AAE_470–660 (R²=0.71) and negatively correlated with the AE33 aerosol loading compensation parameter (k) (R²=0.74) in the wet season, but these correlations were significantly weaker in the dry season, which may be related to the impact of BB. This result suggests that during the wet season, the lensing effect was more likely dominating the AAE diurnal variability rather than the contribution from brown carbon (BrC). Secondary processing can affect E_abs diurnal dynamics. The E_abs520 exhibited a clear dependency on the ratio of secondary organic carbon to organic carbon (SOC∕OC), confirming the contribution of secondary organic aerosols to E_abs; E_abs520 correlated well with nitrate and showed a clear dependence on temperature. This new finding implies that gas–particle partitioning of semivolatile compounds may potentially play an important role in steering the diurnal fluctuation of E_abs520. In the dry season, the diurnal variability in E_abs520 was associated with photochemical aging as evidenced by the good correlation (R²=0.69) between oxidant concentrations (${\mathrm{O}}_x={\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{3}}+{\mathrm{NO}}_{\mathrm{2}}$ ) and E_abs520.

The formation of oxalic acid and its mixing state in atmospheric particulate matter (PM) were studied using a single-particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SPAMS) in the summer and winter of 2014 in Heshan, a supersite in the rural area of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region in China. Oxalic-acid-containing particles accounted for 2.5 and 2.7 % in total detected ambient particles in summer and winter, respectively. Oxalic acid was measured in particles classified as elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), elemental and organic carbon (ECOC), biomass burning (BB), heavy metal (HM), secondary (Sec), sodium-potassium (NaK), and dust. Oxalic acid was found predominantly mixing with sulfate and nitrate during the whole sampling period, likely due to aqueous-phase reactions. In summer, oxalic-acid-containing particle number and ozone concentration followed a very similar trend, which may reflect the significant contribution of photochemical reactions to oxalic acid formation. The HM particles were the most abundant oxalic acid particles in summer and the diurnal variations in peak area of iron and oxalic acid show opposite trends, which suggests a possible loss of oxalic acid through the photolysis of iron oxalato-complexes during the strong photochemical activity period. In wintertime, carbonaceous particles contained a substantial amount of oxalic acid as well as abundant carbon clusters and BB markers. The general existence of nitric acid in oxalic-acid-containing particles indicates an acidic environment during the formation process of oxalic acid. The peak areas of nitrate, sulfate and oxalic had similar temporal change in the carbonaceous type oxalic acid particles, and the organosulfate-containing oxalic acid particles correlated well with total oxalic acid particles during the haze episode, which suggests that the formation of oxalic acid is closely associated with the oxidation of organic precursors in the aqueous phase.

In the present study, a ground-based counterflow virtual impactor (GCVI) was used to sample cloud droplet residual (cloud RES) particles, while a parallel PM_2.5 inlet was used to sample cloud-free or cloud interstitial (cloud INT) particles. The mixing state of black carbon (BC)-containing particles and the mass concentrations of BC in the cloud-free, RES and INT particles were investigated using a single-particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SPAMS) and two aethalometers, respectively, at a mountain site (1690 m a. s. l. ) in southern China. The measured BC-containing particles were extensively internally mixed with sulfate and were scavenged into cloud droplets (with number fractions of 0.05–0.45) to a similar (or slightly lower) extent as all the measured particles (0.07–0.6) over the measured size range of 0.1–1.6 µm. The results indicate the preferential activation of larger particles and/or that the production of secondary compositions shifts the BC-containing particles towards larger sizes. BC-containing particles with an abundance of both sulfate and organics were scavenged less than those with sulfate but limited organics, implying the importance of the mixing state on the incorporation of BC-containing particles into cloud droplets. The mass scavenging efficiency of BC with an average of 33 % was similar for different cloud events independent of the air mass. This is the first time that both the mixing state and cloud scavenging of BC in China have been reported. Our results would improve the knowledge on the concentration, mixing state, and cloud scavenging of BC in the free troposphere.

Particulate amines play an important role for the particle acidity and hygroscopicity and also contribute to secondary organic aerosol mass. We investigated the sources and mixing states of particulate amines using a single-particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SPAMS) during summer and winter 2014 at a rural site in the Pearl River Delta, China. Amine-containing particles accounted for 11.1 and 9.4 % of the total detected individual particles in summer and winter, respectively. Although the increase in amine-containing particle counts mostly occurred at night, no obvious correlations between amine-containing particles and ambient relative humidity (RH) were found during the sampling period. Among the three markers we considered, the most abundant amine marker was ⁷⁴(C₂H₅)₂NH₂⁺, which was detected in 90 and 86 % of amine-containing particles in summer and winter, followed by amine marker ions of ⁵⁹(CH₃)₃N⁺, and ⁸⁶(C₂H₅)₂NCH₂⁺ which were detected in less than 10 % of amine-containing particles during sampling period. The amine-containing particles were characterized by high fractions of carbonaceous marker ions, carbon–nitrogen fragments, sulfate, and nitrate in both summer and winter. More than 90 % of amine-containing particles were found to be internally mixed with sulfate throughout the sampling period, while the percentage of amine particles containing nitrate increased from 43 % in summer to 69 % in winter. Robust correlations between the peak intensities of amines, sulfate, and nitrate were observed, suggesting the possible formation of aminium sulfate and nitrate salts. Interestingly, only 8 % of amine particles contained ammonium in summer, while the percentage increased dramatically to 54 % in winter, indicating a relatively ammonium-poor state in summer and an ammonium-rich state in winter. The total ammonium-containing particles were investigated and showed a much lower abundance in ambient particles in summer (3.6 %) than that in winter (32.6 %), which suggests the ammonium-poor state of amine-containing particles in summer may be related to the lower abundance of ammonia/ammonium in gas and particle phases. In addition, higher abundance of amines in ammonium-containing particles than that of ammonium in amine-containing particles suggests a possible contribution of ammonium–amine exchange reactions to the low abundance of ammonium in amine-containing particles at high ambient RH (72 ± 13 %) in summer. The particle acidity of amine-containing particles is estimated via the relative acidity ratio (R_a), which is defined as the ratio of the sum of the sulfate and nitrate peak areas divided by the ammonium peak area. The R_a was 326 ± 326 in summer and 31 ± 13 in winter, indicating that the amine-containing particles were more acidic in summer than in winter. However, after including amines along with the ammonium in the acidity calculation, the new R_a′ values showed no seasonal change in summer (11 ± 4) and winter (10 ± 2), which suggests that amines could be a buffer for the particle acidity of ammonium-poor particles.

Ships are among the main contributors to global air pollution, with substantial impacts on climate and public health. To improve air quality in densely populated coastal areas and to protect sensitive ecosystems, sulfur emission control areas (SECAs) were established in many regions of the world. Ships in SECAs operate with low-sulfur fuels, typically distillate fractions such as marine gas oil (MGO). Alternatively, exhaust gas-cleaning devices (“scrubbers”) can be implemented to remove SO₂ from the exhaust, thus allowing the use of cheap high-sulfur residual fuels. Compliance monitoring is established in harbors but is difficult in open water because of high costs and technical limitations. Here we present the first experiments to detect individual ship plumes from distances of several kilometers by single-particle mass spectrometry (SPMS). In contrast to most monitoring approaches that evaluate the gaseous emissions, such as manned or unmanned surveillance flights, sniffer technologies and remote sensing, we analyze the metal content of individual particles which is conserved during atmospheric transport. We optimized SPMS technology for the evaluation of residual fuel emissions and demonstrate their detection in a SECA. Our experiments show that ships with installed scrubbers can emit PM emissions with health-relevant metals in quantities high enough to be detected from more than 10 km distance, emphasizing the importance of novel exhaust-cleaning technologies and cleaner fuels. Because of the unique and stable signatures, the method is not affected by urban background. With this study, we establish a route towards a novel monitoring protocol for ship emissions. Therefore, we present and discuss mass spectral signatures that indicate the particle age and thus the distance to the source. By matching ship transponder data, measured wind data and air mass back trajectories, we show how real-time SPMS data can be evaluated to assign distant ship passages.