Laetoli is a well-known palaeontological locality in northern Tanzania whose outstanding record includes the earliest hominin footprints in the world (3.66 million years old), discovered in 1978 at Site G and attributed to Australopithecus afarensis. Here, we report hominin tracks unearthed in the new Site S at Laetoli and referred to two bipedal individuals (S1 and S2) moving on the same palaeosurface and in the same direction as the three hominins documented at Site G. The stature estimates for S1 greatly exceed those previously reconstructed for Au. afarensis from both skeletal material and footprint data. In combination with a comparative reappraisal of the Site G footprints, the evidence collected here embodies very important additions to the Pliocene record of hominin behaviour and morphology. Our results are consistent with considerable body size variation and, probably, degree of sexual dimorphism within a single species of bipedal hominins as early as 3.66 million years ago.

For the past two centuries or so, education systems in Africa have changed from parental- to school-based training. With this pedagogical shift, children and young people are mentored using school curricula that say very little about the cultural heritage sites in the community in which they were born and raised. Heritage research outputs, such as books and articles in international journals, cannot be accessed by local people. If they do manage to access these publications, the content is too technical for them to understand the central arguments. Consequently, local people, especially teenagers and young adults, have little awareness of the scientific interpretation of heritage sites and their associated value. The question remains as to what methods could be used to make young people appreciate cultural heritage sites and hence collectively engage in heritage preservation projects. Using Tanzania’s ‘Bongo Flava’ (BF) music as a case study, this paper provides empirical evidence of how music could be used to make people aware of the value of heritage sites in Africa. We report that BF music at Kilwa Kisiwani World Heritage Site in Tanzania is continuing to motivate young people to develop an interest in preserving monuments and to participate in conservation initiatives.

For World Heritage Sites (WHS) to be sustainable, they need regular care and established Management Plans. Such care depends, however, upon the availability of resources (both technical and financial) and the readiness and commitment of government, together with the involvement of other stakeholders such as local communities. The application of this care results in the continued survival of WHS despite the anthropogenic and natural threats that they face. Recent research carried out at the cultural WHS of the Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Ruins of Songo Mnara, Tanzania, indicates that, although significant financial resources have been given to address various conservation and management challenges, the Tanzanian government has not fully committed itself to resolving these challenges and has not fully involved local communities in sustainably managing the sites. Moreover, in the process of implementing conservation projects, archaeological deposits, which, like architectural structures, form part of the site’s Outstanding Universal Values (OUV), have been destroyed. Despite these shortcomings, UNESCO has removed the Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Ruins of Songo Mnara WHS from the World Heritage List (WHL) of sites in danger. We present an analysis of what is needed to retain WHS integrity in conditions that are far from optimal. We suggest that multi-focused WHS conservation projects that adhere to established Management Plans, aided by professional advice, are critical to preserving these sites for posterity.

During the second millennium CE, the medieval settlements of Kilwa in southeastern Tanzania were part of the Indian Ocean trading system that left a clear physical legacy of stone towns along with oral histories and sailing traditions. Modern developmental activities including exploration of oil and gas, house building, and establishment of tourism infrastructures have led to the reuse of heritage site, hence, an inevitable pressure upon heritage preservation. Unfortunately, despite being outdated and very colonial, legislations enacted to support protection of heritage sites are inadequately enforced. This paper looks at complementary conservation challenges by considering the value of medieval monuments and intangible heritage assets within the ecosystem services. We also provide some suggestions on how exploitation of non-material benefits in the form of Cultural Ecosystem Services from legends based on intertidal limestone features resembling boats and giants, as well as the venerated baobabs and mangroves can become sustainable.