Since the domestication of plants, pathogenic fungi have consistently threatened crop production, evolving genetically to develop increased virulence under various selection pressures. Understanding their evolutionary trends is crucial for predicting and designing control measures against future disease outbreaks. This paper reviews the evolution of fungal pathogens from natural habitats to agricultural settings, focusing on eight significant phytopathogens: Pyricularia oryzae, Botrytis cinerea, Puccinia spp., Fusarium graminearum, F. oxysporum, Blumeria graminis, Zymoseptoria tritici, and Colletotrichum spp. Also, we explore the mechanism used to understand evolutionary trends in these fungi. The studied pathogens have evolved in agroecosystems through either (1) introduction from elsewhere; or (2) local origins involving co-evolution with host plants, host shifts, or genetic variations within existing strains. Genetic variation, generated via sexual recombination and various asexual mechanisms, often drives pathogen evolution. While sexual recombination is rare and mainly occurs at the center of origin of the pathogen, asexual mechanisms such as mutations, parasexual recombination, horizontal gene or chromosome transfer, and chromosomal structural variations are predominant. Farming practices like mono-cropping resistant cultivars and prolonged use of fungicides with the same mode of action can drive the emergence of new pathotypes. Furthermore, host range does not necessarily impact pathogen adaptation and evolution. Although halting pathogen evolution is impractical, its pace can be slowed by managing selective pressures, optimizing farming practices, and enforcing quarantine regulations. The study of pathogen evolution has been transformed by advancements in molecular biology, genomics, and bioinformatics, utilizing methods like next-generation sequencing, comparative genomics, transcriptomics and population genomics. However, continuous research remains essential to monitor how pathogens evolve over time and to develop proactive strategies that mitigate their impact on agriculture.

Human activities have introduced large amounts of heavy metals into natural ecosystems in recent years. As a result, the accumulation of heavy metals and metalloids in plants, animals, and humans, which may have caused some health problems. Chemical and physical methods can remove the heavy metal in contaminated soil, but both are very expensive and ineffective. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) are mutualistic symbionts in most plant roots. Furthermore, AMF are the essential mycorrhizae for phytoremediation, and the extensive hyphal network of them can increase the uptake of micro and macronutrients, water and heavy metals from the soil. However, AMF hyphae colonized in plant roots have an ability for compartmentalizing heavy metals inside plant roots. Furthermore, AMF hyphae are capable of secreting a glycoprotein, named glomalin, which can bind heavy metals and subsequently remove heavy metals absorbed by the plants from contaminated soil. Glomalin can develop the properties and structure of the soil, which helps to enhance soil fertility. This paper presents the role of AMF in the ecosystems and as potential tools for bioremediation of heavy metals in the soil.

Using them to phase out chemical fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers generate environmental pollution and negatively impact benefi cial organisms as well as human and animal wellbeing, causing a paradigm shift towards safer improved biofertilizers. Hence, improving the arsenal of microbial inoculants such as plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and plant growth-promoting fungi (PGPF), use of microbial consortia, use of uncommon inoculants such as extremophiles and microalgae, development of customized biofertilizers to suit the conditions of the fi elds and their geographical locations, identifying and popularizing other benefi cial aspects of biofertilizers to use them as tools for bioremediation, improved plant physiology and degradation of pesticides have become the trends of biofertilizers. However, soil application of biofertilizers has limited success yet and to be explored. Because of the interactions of soil- introduced PGPR and PGPF can be excluded by the more resilient microbiome in soil. Therefore, different strategies have to be employed to facilitate complex interactions with soil, environment and phytomicrobiomes. New molecular technologies allow for using metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, metaproteomics and metabolomics to spur development. Phytomicrobiome engineering is also used in synthetic biology also may offer new trend. These will be key in developing the next generation of biofertilizers.

In this study, a field experiment was conducted to evaluate the growth and yield responses of Sri Lankan lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) with the application of beneficial Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculum and intercropping with highly mycorrhizal-dependent vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides L.) under two different soil nutrient management systems (NMSs): conventional/chemical (CNMS) and organic (ONMS). The experiment was designed as a split plot with three blocks. Each CNMS and ONMS experiment included an untreated control (T0) and three treatments—AMF inoculation (T1), vetiver intercropping (T2), and the combination of AMF and vetiver (T3). According to the results, the colonization of rice roots with AMF was not affected significantly by the treatments and ranged from 0–15.8%. The effect was very low or absent in the early stage and then higher in the later stages of the rice plant. Furthermore, plant growth was not significantly different between the two NMSs, although grain yield was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in ONMS than for the respective controls (T0), with the order T1 (0.45 kg/m²) > T2 (0.42 kg/m²) > T3 (0.41 kg/m²) in CNMS and T2 (0.44 kg/m²) > T1 (0.41 kg/m²) > T3 (0.40 kg/m²), thus suggesting the utilization of AMF and vetiver in a lowland rice farming system is beneficial.

Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between a soil-borne fungus and plant root. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are the most common type of mycorrhizal associations occurring in plants. AMF can increase plant growth mainly by improving nutrient uptake and making plants resistant to several biotic and abiotic stresses. Thus, AMF could be referred to as an important biofertilizer for the crop production. However, in Sri Lankan context, seems the knowledge and use of AMF is limited, though there is a great potential of using AMF for sustainable crop production and forestry. This review provides an overview on the benefits of AMF for agriculture and forestry with the studies that have been carried out to attain them, in Sri Lanka.

Most of the dry zone forests in Sri Lanka are arisen after unsustainable farming practices. Therefore, the natural regeneration of plant species in these forests reported to be very poor due to the reduced soil fertility. This study was conducted to find possible measures for the successful seed germination and seedling establishment of common dry zone forest tree species by sustainable soil fertility management. A pot trial was carried out in a greenhouse at the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Rajarata University, Mihintale, Sri Lanka. The experiment comprised of 128 pots and four replicates. Pots were assigned with different soil fertility managements: T0: control (Top soil only), T1: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF), T2: a traditional mixed microbial culture (Jeewamurthum), T3: Compost, T4: Biochar, T5: T1+T2, T6: T1+T3, T7: T1+T4; and different forest plant species: Manilkara hexandra, Feronia limonia, Pterospermum conscens and Bauhinia racemosa. Seed germination percentage was measured two weeks after sowing, and shoot biomass, relative plant growth rate, and AMF colonization percentage were measured after four months of germination. The results revealed that inoculation of AMF enhance the seed germination percentage of all the selected plant species. Both sole and combined application of AMF and compost gives more benefits to all the tested plant species by enhancing all the measured growth parameters. The findings of present study would be useful in reforestation programs of dry zone forests in Sri Lanka by practicing sustainable procedures.