Windstorms are considered among the most impacting natural events for European forests and related Socio-Ecological Systems (SES). Given that their intensity and frequency are increasing, an in-depth understanding of their impacts is crucial to mitigate risks and potential negative effects. However, so far, scientific research on windstorm impacts has mainly focused on environmental dimensions, while socio-economic and institutional ones are rarely taken into consideration. Our analysis aims at enriching the current scientific knowledge on windstorm impacts on forest SES by providing an overview of the state-of-the-art academic investigations on windstorm impacts on socio-economic and institutional dimensions. Overall, 46 papers were reviewed to identify the most recurrent post-windstorm dynamics and drivers that influence resilience and adaptation of socio-economic, institutional and related governance dimensions of European forest SES. Results show that the current scientific knowledge on socio-economic impacts of windstorms mainly concentrates on forest-related stakeholders and sectors, paying little attention to the broader social, cultural and institutional drivers that contribute to forest SES resilience. Further, cascade effects linking environmental, social and institutional dimensions are poorly analyzed. This restricted focus could lead to an incomplete understanding of the dynamics shaping socio-economic adaptability to windstorms, affecting long-term and sustainable recovery from extreme natural events. To correctly frame effective, intersectoral and coordinated recovery strategies gaining a deeper understanding of human–environment interactions is needed, as well as acknowledging the positive influence of causal relationships in improving forest-related SES resilience.

Analysing multi-hazard climate risk is complex due to multiple interactions among risk factors, leading to cascading and interconnected impacts. While past climate-related disasters provide invaluable insights into underlying risk factors, the non-stationarity of meteoclimatic processes and evolving non-climatic risk drivers necessitate approaches that also consider present and future conditions; moreover, lessons from past events must be generalised to effectively inform risk governance. A range of analytical approaches has been developed to capture this complexity, each shaped by distinct perspectives and values. Understanding how these approaches conceptualise risk is crucial for advancing disaster risk science. Although widely used, they are typically applied in isolation, with no guiding framework for integrating them into a cohesive, multi-method workflow. This paper proposes such a framework, combining forensic disaster analysis, impact chains (ICs), and risk storylines (SLs) as complementary approaches for multi-hazard risk assessment, designed to support strategic risk framing for researchers and practitioners in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. We argue that applying these methods jointly and in a structured manner provides a more comprehensive understanding of climate disaster risk across the full temporal spectrum—from forensic analysis of past events, to ICs for present risk assessment, to SLs for exploring possible futures in terms of materialised impacts. To substantiate this argument, we exemplify the framework using the Vaia storm in Northern Italy, and comparatively evaluate the three approaches against seven characteristics identified by Hochrainer-Stigler (2023 iScience 26 106736) for comprehensive multi-hazard and multi-risk assessment. By highlighting the individual limitations and complementary strengths of these analytical approaches through the lens of these seven criteria, this paper provides a pathway for moving from single-method approaches toward an integrated, temporally comprehensive framework that can enhance risk assessment and generate actionable insights for climate and disaster risk governance.

Mountain regions are complex social–ecological–technological systems whose dynamics and challenges can influence lives and livelihoods way beyond the local scale. To capture, represent, and tackle these challenges, the Global Mountain Safeguard Research (GLOMOS) program has developed a systemic approach to understanding and reducing risks in mountain communities. Drawing on 6 years of transdisciplinary research, this paper presents the approach and highlights its main outcomes and lessons learned. GLOMOS advances holistic and context-sensitive studies for resilient mountain communities through 3 main research lines, directed at integrating climate and disaster risk assessment, recognizing diverse knowledge systems for preparedness, and facilitating sustainable water catchment management. The findings emphasize the importance of interconnected, equitable adaptation measures that address the systemic nature of mountain risks and support sustainable development across these vital landscapes.