The advent of simple and affordable tools for molecular identification of novel insect invaders and assessment of population diversity has changed the face of invasion biology in recent years. The widespread application of these tools has brought with it an emerging understanding that patterns in biogeography, introduction history and subsequent movement and spread of many invasive alien insects are far more complex than previously thought. We reviewed the literature and found that for a number of invasive insects, there is strong and growing evidence that multiple introductions, complex global movement, and population admixture in the invaded range are commonplace. Additionally, historical paradigms related to species and strain identities and origins of common invaders are in many cases being challenged. This has major consequences for our understanding of basic biology and ecology of invasive insects and impacts quarantine, management and biocontrol programs. In addition, we found that founder effects rarely limit fitness in invasive insects and may benefit populations (by purging harmful alleles or increasing additive genetic variance). Also, while phenotypic plasticity appears important post-establishment, genetic diversity in invasive insects is often higher than expected and increases over time via multiple introductions. Further, connectivity among disjunct regions of global invasive ranges is generally far higher than expected and is often asymmetric, with some populations contributing disproportionately to global spread. We argue that the role of connectivity in driving the ecology and evolution of introduced species with multiple invasive ranges has been historically underestimated and that such species are often best understood in a global context.

Molecular species identification is becoming more wide-spread in diagnostics and ecological studies, particularly with regard to insects for which morphological identification is difficult or time-consuming. In this study, we describe the development and application of a single-step multiplex PCR for the identification of three mealybug species (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) associated with grapevine in South Africa:Planococcus ficus(vine mealybug),Planococcus citri(citrus mealybug) andPseudococcus longispinus(longtailed mealybug). Mealybugs are pests on many commercial crops, including grapevine, in which they transmit viral diseases. Morphological identification of mealybug species is usually time-consuming, requires a high level of taxonomic expertise and usually only adult females can be identified. The single-step multiplex PCR developed here, based on the mitochondrial cytochromecoxidase subunit 1 (CO I) gene, is rapid, reliable, sensitive, accurate and simple. The entire identification protocol (including DNA extraction, PCR and electrophoresis) can be completed in approximately four hours. Successful DNA extraction from laboratory and unparasitized field-collected individuals stored in absolute ethanol was 97%. Specimens from which DNA could be extracted were always correctly identified (100% accuracy). The technique developed is simple enough to be implemented in any molecular laboratory. The principles described here can be extended to any organism for which rapid, reliable identification is needed.

Alien taxa have been introduced to South Africa through a wide variety of pathways, and have subsequently been intentionally or accidentally dispersed across the country. While many introductions to South Africa have been intentional, alien taxa have also been accidentally introduced, or have spread unaided into the country from neighbouring countries where they have previously been introduced. Similar to other regions, organisms of different types have been introduced to South Africa through different pathways, and some pathways have introduced more taxa that have become invasive than others. Changing socio-economic factors have played an important role in shaping the pathways of introduction and dispersal for South Africa. The first known introductions to South Africa were mostly intentional introductions from Africa for agriculture and medicine. However, as a result of increasing and geographically expanding trade and transport, the development of new technologies, and changing human interests and attitudes, over time, new pathways of introduction and dispersal developed, and the importance of existing pathways changed. Control measures have been put in place to manage some of the pathways, but despite these measures introductions continue to occur at an increasing rate. It is likely that these trends will persist into the future, and in particular, accidental introductions are likely to increase with increasing trade. Due to new legislation, the risks posed by legal intentional introductions should be reduced, but technological and political developments mean that it is becoming increasingly difficult to manage the pathways and enforce existing regulations. To better inform management, further research into the pathways of introduction and dispersal is required.

Increasing international trade and tourism have led to an increase in the introduction of exotic pests that pose a considerable economic threat to th

The presence of Brevipalpus lewisi (Trombidiformes: Tenuipalpidae) is reported from South Africa for the first time. Previously this mite was a listed phytosanitary pest to South Africa, and entry of infested goods was prohibited. During a country-wide survey, B. lewisi was found on grapevine in the Western Cape and Northern Cape provinces. It has not been found in other provinces or on other crops, most notably on citrus, on which it is considered a pest in other countries. Brevipalpus lewisi was regularly collected together with several other mite species, including predatory species. Other Brevipalpus species collected were B. californicus and B. obovatus on grapevine and citrus and B. yothersi on grapevine.