Biomarkers play a pivotal role in disease diagnosis, therapeutic efficacy evaluation, prognostic assessment, and drug screening. However, the trace concentrations of these markers in complex physiological environments pose significant challenges to efficient detection. It is necessary to avoid interference from non-specific signals, which may lead to misjudgment of other substances as biomarkers and affect the accuracy of detection results. With the rapid advancements in electrochemical technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms, intelligent electrochemical biosensors have emerged as a promising approach for biomedical detection, offering speed, specificity, high sensitivity, and accuracy. This review focuses on elaborating the latest applications of AI-empowered electrochemical biosensors in the biomedical field, including disease diagnosis, treatment monitoring, drug development, and wearable devices. AI algorithms can further improve the accuracy, sensitivity, and repeatability of electrochemical sensors through the screening and performance prediction of sensor materials, as well as the feature extraction and noise reduction suppression of sensing signals. Even in complex physiological microenvironments, they can effectively address common issues such as electrode fouling, poor signal-to-noise ratio, chemical interference, and matrix effects. This work may provide novel insights for the development of next-generation intelligent biosensors for precision medicine.

Metal ion contamination has serious impacts on environmental and biological health, so it is crucial to effectively monitor the levels of these metal ions. With the continuous progression of optoelectronic nanotechnology and biometrics, the emerging electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensing technology has not only proven its simplicity, but also showcased its utility and remarkable sensitivity in engineered monitoring of residual heavy metal contaminants. This comprehensive review begins by introducing the composition, advantages, and detection principles of ECL biosensors, and delving into the engineered aspects. Furthermore, it explores two signal amplification methods: biometric element-based strategies (e.g., HCR, RCA, EDC, and CRISPR/Cas) and nanomaterial (NM)-based amplification, including quantum dots, metal nanoclusters, carbon-based nanomaterials, and porous nanomaterials. Ultimately, this review envisions future research trends and engineered technological enhancements of ECL biosensors to meet the surging demand for metal ion monitoring.

The development of cost-effective, rapid-response, and user-friendly biosensing platforms has become paramount importance for achieving precise biomarker quantification in early disease detection. Implementing timely diagnostic interventions through accurate biomarker analysis not only significantly improves treatment outcomes but also enables effective disease management strategies, ultimately leading to substantial reductions in patient mortality rates. These clinical imperatives have consequently driven the innovation of portable point-of-care (POC) diagnostic systems. Electrochemical biosensors are attractive in the early diagnosis of diseases due to their low cost, simple operation, and high sensitivity. This review examines prevalent material innovations in electrode functionalization for electrochemical biosensing platforms, with specific emphasis on their translational applications in early-stage disease detection. The analysis included three important early diagnostic biomarker types: proteins, nucleic acids, and small molecule metabolites. Furthermore, the work proposes novel research trajectories for next-generation biosensor development, advocating the synergistic integration of artificial intelligence-driven analytics, Internet of Medical Things (IoMT)-enabled diagnostic networks, and advanced micro/nanofabrication techniques.

The process and mechanism of biomineralization and relevant physicochemical properties of mineral crystals are remarkably sophisticated multidisciplinary fields that include biology, chemistry, physics, and materials science. The components of the organic matter, structural construction of minerals, and related mechanical interaction, etc., could help to reveal the unique nature of the special mineralization process. Herein, the paper provides an overview of the biomineralization process from the perspective of molecular vibrational spectroscopy, including the physicochemical properties of biomineralized tissues, from physiological to applied mineralization. These physicochemical characteristics closely to the hierarchical mineralization process include biological crystal defects, chemical bonding, atomic doping, structural changes, and content changes in organic matter, along with the interface between biocrystals and organic matter as well as the specific mechanical effects for hardness and toughness. Based on those observations, the special physiological properties of mineralization for enamel and bone, as well as the possible mechanism of pathological mineralization and calcification such as atherosclerosis, tumor micro mineralization, and urolithiasis are also reviewed and discussed. Indeed, the clearly defined physicochemical properties of mineral crystals could pave the way for studies on the mechanisms and applications.