Crop straw and N fertilizer applications impact paddy rice yield and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, their interactive effects have not been well documented. This study investigated the effects of straw (S), no straw incorporation (NS), and three levels of N fertilization rates (N0, N1, and N2) on single rice (SR), double rice (DR), and rice-wheat (RW) cropping systems. Straw incorporation significantly increased total CH₄ emissions by 118.6%, 8.0%, and 79.0% in the SR, DR, and RW, respectively, compared to the NS. The total GHG emissions in DR are significantly 72.6% and 83.5% higher than those in RW and SR, respectively. Compared to NS, straw incorporation significantly increased yield-scaled emissions by 27.8%, 15.0%, and 89.0% in SR, DR, and RW, respectively. Straw with N application significantly increased average rice yield over N1 and N2 by 39.4%, 50.0%, and 6.7% in SR, DR, and RW, respectively. There was a significant correlation between methyl coenzyme M reductase (mcrA) and CH₄ emissions in r_SR = 0.87 (p < 0.05) and r_RW = 0.85 (p < 0.05), except in r_DR = 0.06 (p > 0.05). This study scientifically supports straw incorporation combined with a moderate N application rate in rice-based cropping systems to maintain high rice yields and mitigate GHG emissions.

Rice cultivation consumes more than half of the planet’s 70% freshwater supply used in agricultural production. Competing water uses and climate change globally are putting more pressure on the limited water resources. Therefore, water-saving irrigation (WSI) is recommended for rice production in water scares areas. The impact of WSI techniques on direct-seeding rice production and greenhouse gas emissions in North China is becoming increasingly important in the era of climate change. Therefore, we conducted a two-year field experiment on directly seeded rice to assess the impact of traditional flooding irrigation (CK) and three water saving irrigation (WSI) methods, including drip irrigation with an irrigation amount of 50 mm (DI₁) and 35 mm (DI₂) at each watering time and furrow wetting irrigation (FWI), on rice yield and greenhouse emissions. Generally, the WSI techniques decreased the number of rice panicles per m⁻², spikelet per panicle, 1000-grain weight and rice yield compared to CK. Rice yield and yield components of (DI₁) were significantly higher than (DI₂). The adoption of either (DI₁) or (FWI) showed insignificant variation in terms of rice yield and its yield components measured except for 1000-grain weight. The water productivity was 88.9, 16.4 and 11.4% higher in the FWI plot than the CK, DI₁ and DI₂ plots, respectively. The WSI decreased cumulative CH₄ emission significantly by 73.0, 84.7 and 64.4% in DI₁, DI₂ and FWI, respectively, in comparison with CK. The usage of DI₂ triggered 1.4 and 2.0-fold more cumulative N₂O emission compared to DI₁ and FWI, respectively. Area-scaled emission among the water-saving irrigation methods showed no significance. The yield-scaled emission in DI₁ and DI₂ and FWI were 101, 67.5 and 102%, respectively, significantly lower than CK. The adoption of FWI produced an acceptable rice yield with the lowest yield-scaled emission and highest water productivity among the irrigation practices. Our experiment demonstrates that dry direct-seeding with furrow irrigation can impact triple-wins of sustainable rice yield, high water-use efficiency and low GHG emissions in North China.

Straw incorporation promotes rice productivity and soil fertility. However, the effects of tillage practice with straw on GHG emissions in paddy fields are not well documented. Under three rice-based cropping systems of China (single rice, double rice and rice-wheat cropping systems), we investigated rice yield, CH₄, N₂O, area and yield-scaled emissions arising from different straw-incorporated tillage patterns. Tillage with straw affected rice yield by −6.8~3.2%, −9.1~9.0% and −9.8~2.1% in single rice, rice-wheat and double rice cropping systems respectively. Straw impacted CH₄ emission but tillage influenced its impact irrespective of the rice cropping system. The highest CH₄ emissions occurred in RedT + S, RoT + S and RoT + S under single rice, rice-wheat and double rice cropping systems respectively. Cumulative CH₄ emission of PT + S decreased by 46.8% (p < 0.05) compared to RedT + S in the single cropping system, while under rice-wheat and double rice cropping systems, cumulative CH₄ emission of PT + S decreased by 19.0% (p < 0.05) and 13.2% (p > 0.05) respectively compared with RoT + S. Lower methanogenic abundance of PT + S translated into the lowest cumulative CH₄, area and yield scaled emissions in single rice and double rice cropping systems. To maintain high rice yield and reduce GHG emissions from straw incorporation, PT + S is recommended for a rice-based cropping system.

Including green manure into a rice-based double-cropping system has effects on both crop production and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Yet, few studies have considered the trade-off between crop productivity, profitability, and carbon footprint (CF) in this cropping system of China. Thus, the impacts of different cropping regimes on crop productivity, economic benefits, carbon footprint, and net ecosystem economic budget (NEEB) were investigated. The treatments were rice–wheat (R–W), rice–rape (R–R), rice–hairy vetch (R–H), rice–barley (R–B), rice–faba bean (R–F), and rice–fallow (R). Compared to R–W treatment, planting rape (R–R), green manure (R–F, R–H), or fallow (R) in winter season tended to improve rice yield, but they were not conducive to yield stability. Treatments of R–H, R–F, and R reduced both direct and indirect GHG emission, and thus mitigated the area-scaled carbon footprint by 34.4%, 44.2%, and 49.7%, respectively, compared to R–W treatment. The economic benefits under R–R, R–B, or R system were not different from those of R–W treatment, while R–H reduced the economic benefit by 70.1%. In comparison with R–W treatment, R–H treatment reduced the NEEB, while R–F significantly increased the NEEB by USD 4065 ha⁻¹. The present results indicate that as a measure to realize the combination of food security and environmental cost reduction, substituting leguminous crops with wheat can mitigate carbon emissions while ensuring profitability, on the premise of yield stability.

Rice yield and quality decline due to excessive fertiliser use is problematic in China. To increase rice grain filling and improve rice yield and quality, a nitrogen reduction and density increase study in 2023 and 2024 was imposed on a long-term experimental field. The four treatments adopted for the study were normal nitrogen and normal density (CK), normal nitrogen and increased density (NN+ID), reduced nitrogen in panicle fertiliser and increased density (RPN+ID), and reduced nitrogen in basal fertiliser and increased density (RBN+ID). RPN+ID and RBN+ID, respectively, produced a 3.0% and 5.1% higher yield than CK in both years. The mean grain filling rate (Va) of superior grains in RBN+ID increased by 12.5%, while the mean grain filling rate (Va) of inferior grains in the RPN+ID treatment increased by 4.2% with respect to CK. RPN+ID caused 0.4%, 9.6%, and 13.3% decline in the brown rice rate, chalkiness degree, and chalkiness rate, respectively, while RBN+ID triggered 0.4%, 7.2%, and 11.0% decline in the brown rice rate, chalkiness degree, and chalkiness rate, respectively. RPN+ID stimulated 4.2% and 3.1% increases in flavour and straight-chain amylose values, respectively. Whereas a 20% reduction in basal nitrogen fertiliser and a 32% increase in density improved the yield and appearance quality of rice, a 20% reduction in nitrogen fertiliser at the panicle stage and a 32% increase in density promoted a higher steaming flavour quality. Therefore, an appropriate reduction in nitrogen fertiliser while simultaneously increasing rice density has a significant impact on rice quality, fertiliser pollution reduction, and is a theoretical basis for rice yield and quality improvement in Northeast China.

Crop production is heavily dependent on fertilizers that negatively impact the environment; therefore, research on biochar to improve the soil’s properties and reduce greenhouse gas emissions has intensified over the years. To elucidate rice yield and greenhouse gas emission (GHG) arising from the application of biochar and N fertilizer on paddy soil in Northeast China, a 3-year (2015–2017) field experiment was established. Adopting a split-plot design with three replicates, two nitrogen (N) fertilizer levels in the main plots were designated as follows: 120 kg N ha⁻¹ (N1, 2/3 of N application rate for optimal local rice yield); 180 kg N ha⁻¹ (N2, full N application rate for optimal local rice yield); and four biochar application rates of no biochar (C0, control); 1.0 t ha⁻¹ biochar (C1); 1.5 t ha⁻¹ biochar (C2); and 2.0 t ha⁻¹ biochar (C3) were designated as sub-treatments. The results showed that in 2015, biochar amendment increased GHG emissions while between 2016 and 2017, biochar amendment of 1.5 t ha⁻¹ decreased CH₄ emissions, global warming potential (GWP), and greenhouse gasses intensity (GHGI) by 11.3%, 10.9%, and 17.0%, respectively. On average, for the years 2016 and 2017, the N₂O fluxes were 17.0% lower in the N2 plots compared to the N1 plots. Biochar amendment of 1.5 t ha⁻¹ recorded an 8.6% increase in rice yield compared to the control. The soil properties of the study site showed that biochar amendment of 1, 1.5, and 2 t ha⁻¹ augmented soil organic matter by 3.3%, 5.3%, and 5.2%, respectively, and soil phosphorus availability by 6.4%, 11.2%, and 22.6%, respectively. The co-application of biochar at 1.5 t ha⁻¹ and 180 kg N ha⁻¹ effectively regulated GHG emissions while maintaining crop yield. Appropriate co-application of biochar with N fertilizer can be adopted for emission reduction and rice yield maintenance while maintaining soil fertility in Northeast China.