Most studies on farmers’ adaptation strategies do not adequately treat the downside of such practices, and how practitioners can survive with the strategies in the wake of climate variability and change. Emphasis has always been on benefits of adaptation which includes showing resilience to increase food production, enhancing livelihood outcomes with less vulnerability, and reducing poverty. This project was undertaken to determine unintended maladaptive outcomes resulting from farmers’ adaptive strategies to climate variability. The project took place in rural southern Ghana with input from tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) growers from the Offinso North District. To mitigate adverse effects of climate variability on tomato productivity, adaptive strategies resulted in reduction in agro-biodiversity, release of greenhouse gas, pollution of nearby water, increasing soil acidity above the optimum requirement of tomato, adverse effects of household farm labor, increasing vulnerability of dependents, increasing pressure on social facilities, competition of crops for nutrients, moisture and sun light, and increase in spread of pests and diseases. Age, gender, formal education, farming experience, and access to extension services influenced farmers’ perceived maladaptive outcomes of adaptation strategies. Adaptation strategies to climate variability, if unchecked, can increase vulnerability, or erode, sustainable development opportunities for farmers in rural agroecological settings.

This paper discusses how climatic and non-climatic factors, either separately or together, shape the adaptation responses of smallholder farmers in the Raya Azebo district of Ethiopia. Their adaptation responses included adjusting planting periods, crop diversification, changing crop types, adopting improved seeds, using irrigation, conducting migration, participation in wage employment, selling local food and drinks, and owning small shops. These adaptation responses were motivated by various climatic (e.g., drought and rainfall variability) as well as non-climatic factors (e.g., market conditions, yield-related factors, land scarcity, labor shortages, soil fertility issues, crop diseases, and limited local employment options). We therefore argue (i) that successful adaptation requires a broader understanding not just of climatic factors but also of the various social-ecological factors that shape smallholder farmers’ adaptations; and (ii) that the successful design and implementation of locally appropriate planned adaptation interventions require the inclusion of both climatic and non-climatic factors.

This study interrogates the state of social-ecological landscapes (SEL) in West Africa, focusing on two case studies: the Mankran SEL in Ghana (case study 1) and the Doma–Rutu SEL in Nigeria (case study 2). Using a mix of methods, the assessment was framed by the Drivers Pressure State Impact Response (DPSIR) model tailored for SEL evaluation (DPSIR-SEL). In the Mankran landscape, land use patterns shifted significantly from 2008 to 2018, with cash crop cultivation peaking at 30% in 2015 before declining to 14.5% by 2018. Water quality assessments in the Mankran micro-watershed indicated that several parameters, including Total Suspended Solids (TSS) at 914.41 ± 1974 mg/L, lead at 18.73 ± 17.26 µg/L, and arsenic at 53.41 ± 86.66 µg/L, exceeded World Health Organization (WHO) standards, raising concerns about potential contamination. In contrast, the Doma–Rutu landscape in Nigeria experienced land use and land cover (LULC) changes from 2000 to 2022, characterized by the expansion of residential and agricultural areas alongside modifications to natural water bodies and vegetation. Water quality issues have emerged, with elevated levels of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and salinity. Furthermore, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) revealed persistent herder-farmer conflicts in Nigeria, which have historically constrained crop production due to various environmental and social factors. The intertwined challenges faced by both the Mankran and Doma–Rutu landscapes underscore the urgent need for sustainable and inclusive resource management, adaptive land-use strategies, and proactive measures to safeguard water quality.