Glucose oxidase (GOx) is an endogenous oxido-reductase that is widely distributed in living organisms. Over recent years, GOx has attracted increasing interest in the biomedical field due to its inherent biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and unique catalysis against β-D-glucose. GOx efficiently catalyzes the oxidization of glucose into gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), which can be employed by various biosensors for the detection of cancer biomarkers. Various cancer therapeutic strategies have also been developed based on the catalytic chemistry of GOx: (1) the consumption of glucose provides an alternative strategy for cancer-starvation therapy; (2) the consumption of oxygen increases tumor hypoxia, which can be harnessed for hypoxia-activated therapy; (3) the generation of gluconic acid enhances the acidity of the tumor microenvironment, which can trigger pH-responsive drug release; (4) the generation of H₂O₂ increases the levels of tumor oxidative stress, and the H₂O₂ can be converted into toxic hydroxyl radicals that can kill cancer cells upon exposure to light irradiation or via the Fenton reaction. More importantly, GOx can be combined with other enzymes, hypoxia-activated prodrugs, photosensitizers or Fenton's reagents, to generate multi-modal synergistic cancer therapies based on cancer starvation therapy, hypoxia-activated therapy, oxidation therapy, photodynamic therapy, and/or photothermal therapy. Such multi-modal approaches are anticipated to exert a stronger therapeutic effect than one therapeutic mode alone. Thus, maximizing the potential of GOx in a biomedical context will offer novel clinical solutions to diagnose and treat cancer. In this tutorial review, we introduce the recent advances of GOx in cancer diagnosis and treatment. We then emphasize the design principles and biomedical applications of GOx-based biosensors and cancer therapeutic approaches. Finally, we discuss the challenges and future prospects of GOx-based catalytic systems in biomedicine.

This review focuses on state-of-the-art progress in cellulose-based hydrogels, and emphasizes their fascinating properties and biomedical applications.

Calcium phosphates (CaPs) are ubiquitous in nature and vertebrate bones and teeth, and have high biocompatibility and promising applications in various biomedical fields. Nanostructured calcium phosphates (NCaPs) are recognized as promising nanocarriers for drug/gene/protein delivery owing to their high specific surface area, pH-responsive degradability, high drug/gene/protein loading capacity and sustained release performance. In order to control the structure and surface properties of NCaPs, various biomolecules with high biocompatibility such as nucleic acids, proteins, peptides, liposomes and phosphorus-containing biomolecules are used in the synthesis of NCaPs. Moreover, biomolecules play important roles in the synthesis processes, resulting in the formation of various NCaPs with different sizes and morphologies. At room temperature, biomolecules can play the following roles: (1) acting as a biocompatible organic phase to form biomolecule/CaP hybrid nanostructured materials; (2) serving as a biotemplate for the biomimetic mineralization of NCaPs; (3) acting as a biocompatible modifier to coat the surface of NCaPs, preventing their aggregation and increasing their colloidal stability. Under heating conditions, biomolecules can (1) control the crystallization process of NCaPs by forming biomolecule/CaP nanocomposites before heating; (2) prevent the rapid and disordered growth of NCaPs by chelating with Ca²⁺ ions to form precursors; (3) provide the phosphorus source for the controlled synthesis of NCaPs by using phosphorus-containing biomolecules. This review focuses on the important roles of biomolecules in the synthesis of NCaPs, which are expected to guide the design and controlled synthesis of NCaPs. Moreover, we will also summarize the biomedical applications of NCaPs in nanomedicine and tissue engineering, and discuss their current research trends and future prospects.

This review comprehensively summarizes the state-of-the-art progress made in magnesium phosphate-based biomaterials, including nanostructured magnesium phosphates and magnesium phosphate-based cements, ceramics, scaffolds, coatings and so on, as well as their biomedical applications in nanomedicine and tissue engineering.