Grasslands are the dominant landscape in China, accounting for 40% of the national land area. Research concerning China's grassland ecosystems can be chronologically summarized into four periods: (i) pre-1950s, preliminary research and survey of grassland vegetation and plant species by Russians, Japanese and Western Europeans, (ii) 1950–1975, exploration and survey of vegetation, soils and topography as part of natural resource inventory programmes by regional and national institutions mainly led by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, (iii) 1976–1995, establishment of field stations for long-term ecological monitoring and studies of ecosystem processes, (iv) 1996–present, comprehensive studies of community dynamics and ecosystem function integrating multi-scale and multidisciplinary approaches and experimental manipulations. Major findings of scientific significance in China's grassland ecosystem research include: (i) improved knowledge on succession and biogeochemistry of the semi-arid and temperate grassland ecosystems, (ii) elucidation of life-history strategies and diapause characteristics of the native grasshopper species as one of the key grassland pests, and (iii) development of effective management strategies for controlling rodent pests in grassland ecosystems. Opportunities exist for using the natural grasslands in northern China as a model system to test ecosystem theories that so far have proven a challenge to ecologists worldwide.

Locusts are one of the world’s most destructive agricultural pests and represent a useful model system in entomology. Here we present a draft 6.5 Gb genome sequence of Locusta migratoria, which is the largest animal genome sequenced so far. Our findings indicate that the large genome size of L. migratoria is likely to be because of transposable element proliferation combined with slow rates of loss for these elements. Methylome and transcriptome analyses reveal complex regulatory mechanisms involved in microtubule dynamic-mediated synapse plasticity during phase change. We find significant expansion of gene families associated with energy consumption and detoxification, consistent with long-distance flight capacity and phytophagy. We report hundreds of potential insecticide target genes, including cys-loop ligand-gated ion channels, G-protein-coupled receptors and lethal genes. The L. migratoria genome sequence offers new insights into the biology and sustainable management of this pest species, and will promote its wide use as a model system.

Behavioral plasticity is the most striking trait in locust phase transition. However, the genetic basis for behavioral plasticity in locusts is largely unknown. To unravel the molecular mechanisms underlying the behavioral phase change in the migratory locust Locusta migratoria, the gene expression patterns over the time courses of solitarization and gregarization were compared by oligonucleotide microarray analysis. Data analysis revealed that several gene categories relevant to peripheral olfactory perception are strongly regulated in a total of 1,444 differentially expressed genes during both time courses. Among these candidate genes, several CSP (chemosensory protein) genes and one takeout gene, LmigTO1, showed higher expression in gregarious and solitarious locusts, respectively, and displayed opposite expression trends during solitarization and gregarization. qRT-PCR experiments revealed that most CSP members and LmigTO1 exhibited antenna-rich expressions. RNA interference combined with olfactory behavioral experiments confirmed that the CSP gene family and one takeout gene, LmigTO1, are involved in the shift from repulsion to attraction between individuals during gregarization and in the reverse transition during solitarization. These findings suggest that the response to locust-emitted olfactory cues regulated by CSP and takeout genes is involved in the behavioral phase change in the migratory locust and provide a previously undescribed molecular mechanism linked to the formation of locust aggregations. The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, is a worldwide agricultural pest whose outbreaks can result in plagues during which locusts mass migrate in marching bands and flying swarms. They exhibit striking phenotypic plasticity depending on the population density. They can transform between the barely-visible solitarious phase and the swarm-forming gregarious phase. A key step in the formation of large aggregation is the initial shift from the strong mutual aversion in solitarious locusts to the attraction to each other in gregarious locusts. Previous genomics studies have revealed 532 differentially expressed genes and many regulating small RNAs between the two phases of the migratory locust. Here, we developed a large-scale oligonucleotide microarray to quantify the expression of 9,154 genes during the time courses of isolating gregarious locusts and crowding solitarious locusts. We found that several olfaction-related genes, several CSPs and one takeout, are strongly regulated during both processes and display opposite expression trends in response to population density change. We then identified that these genes mediate the rapid switch of attraction/repulsion behaviors in the migratory locust. Our findings are particularly significant for understanding the process of locust aggregation and may provide new targets to manipulate locust behavior as part of novel management strategies.

Locusts exhibit remarkable density-dependent phenotype (phase) changes from the solitary to the gregarious, making them one of the most destructive agricultural pests. This phenotype polyphenism arises from a single genome and diverse transcriptomes in different conditions. Here we report a de novo transcriptome for the migratory locust and a comprehensive, representative core gene set. We carried out assembly of 21.5 Gb Illumina reads, generated 72,977 transcripts with N50 2,275 bp and identified 11,490 locust protein-coding genes. Comparative genomics analysis with eight other sequenced insects was carried out to indentify the genomic divergence between hemimetabolous and holometabolous insects for the first time and 18 genes relevant to development was found. We further utilized the quantitative feature of RNA-seq to measure and compare gene expression among libraries. We first discovered how divergence in gene expression between two phases progresses as locusts develop and identified 242 transcripts as candidates for phase marker genes. Together with the detailed analysis of deep sequencing data of the 4^th instar, we discovered a phase-dependent divergence of biological investment in the molecular level. Solitary locusts have higher activity in biosynthetic pathways while gregarious locusts show higher activity in environmental interaction, in which genes and pathways associated with regulation of neurotransmitter activities, such as neurotransmitter receptors, synthetase, transporters, and GPCR signaling pathways, are strongly involved. Our study, as the largest de novo transcriptome to date, with optimization of sequencing and assembly strategy, can further facilitate the application of de novo transcriptome. The locust transcriptome enriches genetic resources for hemimetabolous insects and our understanding of the origin of insect metamorphosis. Most importantly, we identified genes and pathways that might be involved in locust development and phase change, and may thus benefit pest management.