Measles is an RNA virus infectious disease mainly seen in children. Despite the availability of an effective vaccine against measles, it remains a health issue in children. Although it is a self-limiting disease, it becomes severe in undernourished and immune-compromised individuals. Measles infection is associated with secondary infections by opportunistic bacteria due to the immunosuppressive effects of the measles virus. Recent reports highlight that measles infection erases the already existing immune memory of various pathogens. This review covers the incidence, pathogenesis, measles variants, clinical presentations, secondary infections, elimination of measles virus on a global scale, and especially the immune responses related to measles infection.

Measles has been a significant public health concern in Pakistan, especially in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province, where sporadic and silent epidemics continue to challenge existing control measures. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence and investigate the molecular epidemiology of the measles virus (MeV) in KPK and explore the vaccination status among the suspected individuals. A cross-sectional study was conducted between February and October 2021. A total of 336 suspected measles cases from the study population were analyzed for IgM antibodies using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Throat swabs were randomly collected from a subset of positive cases for molecular analysis. Phylogenetic analysis of MeV isolates was performed using the neighbor-joining method. The vaccination status of individuals was also recorded. Among the suspected participants, 61.0% (205/336) were ELISA positive for IgM antibodies, with a higher prevalence in males (64.17%) compared to females (57.04%). The majority of cases (36.0%) were observed in infants and toddlers, consistent with previous reports. The majority of IgM-positive cases (71.7%) had not received any dose of measles vaccine, highlighting gaps in vaccine coverage and the need for improved immunization programs. Genetic analysis revealed that all MeV isolates belonged to the B3 genotype, with minor genetic variations from previously reported variants in the region. This study provides valuable insights into the genetic epidemiology of the MeV in KPK, Pakistan. The high incidence of measles infection among unvaccinated individuals highlights the urgency of raising awareness about vaccine importance and strengthening routine immunization programs.

Recent advances in vaccine technology and their uses in viral infection management were the focus of the study. Potential nucleic acid-based platforms for vaccine development, including DNA and RNA vaccines, were also investigated. During the COVID-19 pandemic, a lot of attention was paid to RNA-based vaccinations like mRNA vaccines because of their rapid development and scalability. These vaccines were shown to be effective at eliciting protective immune responses and provided the adaptability to include multiple antigenic sites. Preclinical and clinical research of this magnitude is required for the development and assessment of these innovative vaccine methods. Immunogenicity, side effects, and efficacy were all taken into account. The study highlighted the need for more investigation and cooperation between researchers, physicians, and business allies to speed up the process of turning these novel vaccine strategies into successful therapies against different types of viral infections. Our study demonstrated the potential of viral vectors, nanoparticles, and nucleic acid-based platforms in developing vaccine technology, and it contributes important insights into the design and evaluation of innovative vaccine tactics against viral diseases. These results add to the existing body of knowledge and may help direct future antiviral research and development. Keywords: Vaccine development, Viruses, DNA Vaccines, RNA Vaccines, COVID-19 Vaccines