Farmland abandonment is considered as an important phenomenon for changing eco-environmental and sociocultural landscapes of mountainous rural landscape. Many studies have analyzed farmland abandonment, its driving factors, geophysical processes and consequences at landscape: however, very few have focused on mountainous developing countries such as in Nepal, which is a rapidly urbanizing country suffering from serious farmland abandonment. Therefore, our study was an attempt to (i) assess the spatiotemporal extent of farmland abandonment in Nepal, (ii) explore driving factors of farmland abandonment, and (iii) discuss on the eco-environmental and sociocultural consequences in Nepal. We reviewed various literature, documents, and national reports to obtain a dataset pertaining to the overall status of farmland use and changes along with political and socioeconomic changes, economic development processes, and policy and governance in Nepal. Our results showed that farmland abandonment is widespread; however, it is more prevalent in the hilly and mountainous regions of Nepal. A total of 9,706,000 ha, accounting for 23.9% of the total cultivated farmland in Nepal, was abandoned during the period of 2001 to 2010. The driving factors included population growth, scattered distribution of settlements, urbanization, socio-economic development, poor access to physical services, and poor implementation of agriculture development policies. Furthermore, the increasing extent of natural disasters, malaria eradication, land reform and resettlement programs, the complex system of land ownership, land fragmentation, political instabilities, and the intensification of trading in agricultural products also acted as drivers of farmland abandonment in Nepal. Farmland abandonment generates negative effects on rural societies eco-environmentally and sociologically. Abandoned plots were subjected to different forms of geomorphic damage (e.g. landslide, debris flows, gully formation, sinkhole development etc.). Farmland landscape fragmented into a group of smaller interspersed patches. Such patches were opened for grassland. Furthermore, farmland abandonment also has effects on the local population and the whole society in terms of the production of goods (e.g., foods, feed, fiber), as well as services provided by the multi-functionality (e.g. sociocultural practices, values and norms) of the agricultural landscape. Therefore, this study plays an important role in planning and implementing eco-environmental management and social development processes in Nepal.

The abandonment of farmland is a phenomenon that shows the deterioration of the physical and social landscape. It is widespread across the mountainous region of Nepal and is expected to further increase in the future. The aim of this study is to: (i) determine the driving factors of farmland abandonment; (ii) discuss its impact on social systems in terms of social networks, relations, practices; and (iii) assess the eco-environmental vulnerability of abandoned farmlands in the high mountain region of Nepal. The authors apply household surveys, focus group discussions and in-depth key informant interviews to visualize the social landscape and changes therein, thus establishing an existing history of mountain societies, social systems and management practices. Moreover, Google Earth Images and Low Height Remote Sensing Survey (UAV) are also used to observe geomorphic processes and the modification of the abandoned farmland and its characteristics. The Multivariate Linear Regression (MLR) model is run using SPSS revealing eight variables; mountain road accessibility, farm distance from residence, household size, household head age, landowner’s living place, ownership of farmland, salary and business and remittances are major factors determining the process of farmland abandonment in the region. Farmers’ social practices such as (i) an indigenous labor exchange system “Parma,” (ii) a traditionally managed irrigation system, (iii) a drinking water supply system, (iv) social practices, rituals, festive events, (v) an indigenous governance system, practices and some existing infrastructures (schools, banks, health, post, temples and more) are going to disappear as a process of abandonment. The decline in individual as well as social participation in land management practices have increased exotic vegetation and soil loss processes, modifying the physical characteristics of abandoned farmlands. Thus, this knowledge is vital for understanding appropriate social processes, natural resources and environmental management.

Globally, farmland abandonment has been a major phenomenon for eco-environmental and social landscape changes in the mountain regions. Farmland abandonment led to endangering the capacity of mountain ecosystems as well as variety of eco-environmental processes that play a pivotal role in regional as well local level eco-environment security. This research aims to (i) assess the spatiotemporal degradation of abandoned farmlands, (ii) identify the major causes of farmland degradation, and (iii) analyze the eco-environmental risks triggered or exacerbated by the degradation of abandoned farmlands. We conducted an inventory of the spatiotemporal distribution of abandoned farmlands and their degradation status with Google earth images and by modeling and interpreting low-height remote sensing images taken by an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Geomorphic damages were mapped at the scale of individual abandoned farms. A multivariate regression statistical (MRS) model was used to identify the major causes of degradation. This research revealed that out of the total surveyed farmlands, 92% were already completely irreversibly damaged. The damages started with the disruption of terraces and bulging processes that occurred within the year after abandonment. This degradation induced diverse hazardous processes, such as landslides, debris flows, rock falls, the formation of gullies, soil erosion, and the development of sinkholes, which increase the negative effects of on both land resources and plant succession. Farmland abandonment does not automatically lead to plant colonization because geomorphic damage is intensified prior to colonization. Therefore, land management is required for plant colonization as well as other efforts to reduce degradation induced eco-environmental risk. This study thus could help land planners and environmentalists in the development of suitable guidelines (pre- or post-abandonment) plans, programmes, and legislation to effectively address the problem of abandoned farmland.