With the rapid proliferation of cyber-physical systems (CPSs) in various sectors, including critical infrastructure, transportation, healthcare, and the energy industry, there is a pressing need for robust cybersecurity mechanisms to protect these systems from cyberattacks. A cyber-physical system is a combination of physical and cyber components, and a security breach in either component can lead to catastrophic consequences. Cyberattack detection and mitigation methods in CPSs involve the use of various techniques such as intrusion detection systems (IDSs), firewalls, access control mechanisms, and encryption. Overall, effective cyberattack detection and mitigation methods in CPSs require a comprehensive security strategy that considers the unique characteristics of a CPS, such as the interconnectedness of physical and cyber components, the need for real-time response, and the potential consequences of a security breach. By implementing these methods, CPSs can be better protected against cyberattacks, thus ensuring the safety and reliability of critical infrastructure and other vital systems. This paper reviews the various kinds of cyber-attacks that have been launched or implemented in CPSs. It reports on the state-of-the-art detection and mitigation methods that have been used or proposed to secure the safe operation of various CPSs. A summary of the requirements that CPSs need to satisfy their operation is highlighted, and an analysis of the benefits and drawbacks of model-based and data-driven techniques is carried out. The roles of machine learning in cyber assault are reviewed. In order to direct future study and motivate additional investigation of this increasingly important subject, some challenges that have been unaddressed, such as the prerequisites for CPSs, an in-depth analysis of CPS characteristics and requirements, and the creation of a holistic review of the different kinds of attacks on different CPSs, together with detection and mitigation algorithms, are discussed in this review.

Suitable technical sizing of a standalone off-grid power system impacts its economic and technical analysis. This research examines the effect of the temperature coefficient to determine the optimal analysis of a standalone off-grid power system considering the case of a standard mall in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, during the crucial 2021 wave of load shedding. Scenarios without temperature coefficients and vice versa were also analyzed for comparison purposes. The system was modeled in a MATLAB environment for optimum component configuration. The analyses showed that the presence of a temperature coefficient results in higher operating costs for the fossil fuel generator because of its increased operation hours, thereby consuming more fossil fuel. It was also discovered that although the capital investment of the hybrid energy system (HES) is higher than that of the fossil-fuel generator alone, its greenhouse gas emission is far lower, producing clean, safe, and sustainable energy.

Renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydro have significantly reduced carbon emissions and have tried to meet the rising demands for clean, reliable, and continuous energy. However, challenges of intermittency, weather conditions, and geographical constraints still hamper the adequate utilization of these renewable energy sources. Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) offers a potential solution by generating continuous, large-scale energy from the solar collectors in orbit. However, it faces major technical, political, and economic challenges, which include high launch costs, safety and efficiency concerns in wireless transmission, orbital congestion, and environmental risks. Recent studies, such as the European Modeling energy systems, evaluations by NASA, and feasibility studies by the European Space Agency, suggest that while SBSP remains expensive, certain design pathways could potentially reduce the costs, making SBSP a competitive or complementary technology mid-century. This paper reviews the latest advances in system design, transmission methods, orbital rectenna configurations, economic feasibility, as well as the legal and environmental impacts, providing a comprehensive view of where Space-Based Solar Power currently stands.