This study investigated the cost competitiveness, using total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis, of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) in heavy duty on and off-road fleet applications as a key enabler in the decarbonisation of the transport sector and compares results to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and diesel internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Assessments were carried out for a present day (2021) scenario, and a sensitivity analysis assesses the impact of changing input parameters on FCEV TCO. This identified conditions under which FCEVs become competitive. A future outlook is also carried out examining the impact of time-sensitive parameters on TCO, when net zero targets are to be reached in the UK and EU. Several FCEVs are cost competitive with ICEVs in 2021, but not BEVs, under base case conditions. However, FCEVs do have potential to become competitive with BEVs under specific conditions favouring hydrogen, including the application of purchase grants and a reduced hydrogen price. By 2050, a number of FCEVs running on several hydrogen scenarios show a TCO lower than ICEVs and BEVs using rapid chargers, but for the majority of vehicles considered, BEVs remain the lowest in cost, unless specific FCEV incentives are implemented. This paper has identified key factors hindering the deployment of hydrogen and conducted comprehensive TCO analysis in heavy duty on and off-road fleet applications. The output has direct contribution to the decarbonisation of the transport sector.

Traffic-related emissions represent a major component of airborne pollution. Historically, dynamometer testing has been most widely used to estimate vehicle emission rates, and these emission rates, in turn, have been used as inputs when modeling traffic-related air quality impacts. However, such conventional drive cycle testing is not considered strictly representative of vehicles under real driving conditions. Therefore, in recent years, significant scientific effort has been focused on the measurement and analysis of real-world vehicle emissions. Here, the use of vehicle emissions monitoring methods (e.g., in-situ methods such as tunnel, inverse dispersion, and remote sensing studies, and in-traffic measures such as probe vehicle and “car chaser” studies) to provide real-world emission estimates is reviewed and discussed in detail. Advantages and disadvantages are identified for the different vehicle emissions monitoring methods, both relative to dynamometer-based approaches and each other. Potential applications of different approaches are also discussed, with particular attention being placed on their complementary use.