The pathogenicity of thermotolerant Campylobacter species, common food-borne pathogens, depends on certain factors unevenly distributed among strains of different origin. The prevalence of such markers has never been examined in a population of Polish Campylobacter strains of human and poultry origin. Therefore, we analysed the presence of the cadF, cdtA, cdtB and cdtC genes and the iam sequence in Campylobacter jejuni (n = 115) and Campylobacter coli (n = 57) isolates from children with diarrhoea and from chicken carcasses. The cadF gene was present in nearly 100 % of Campylobacter isolates tested, regardless of their origin or species. In contrast, the iam region was found in 83.3 % and 100 % of C. coli isolates from children and chickens, respectively, but in only 1.6 % and 54.7 %, respectively, of C. jejuni isolates. Similarly, the detection rates of cdt genes varied between human and chicken isolates. All three cdt genes were found in nearly all C. jejuni isolates from both children and chickens, but in only 5.6 % of human C. coli isolates as compared to 87.2 % of chicken C. coli isolates. This different distribution of genetic markers between human and chicken isolates indicates that some Campylobacter infections in children may have additional sources other than contaminated chicken meat.

Purpose. To investigate the expression of innate immunity components and cytokines in the gastric mucosa among H. pylori infected and uninfected children. Materials and Methods. Biopsies of the antral gastric mucosa from children with dyspeptic symptoms were evaluated. Gene expressions of innate immunity receptors and cytokines were measured by quantitative real‐time PCR. The protein expression of selected molecules was tested by immunohistochemistry. Results. H. pylori infection did not lead to a significant upregulation of MyD88, TLR2, TLR4, CD14, TREM1, and TREM2 mRNA expression but instead resulted in high mRNA expression of IL-6, IL-10, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and CD163. H. pylori cagA(+) infection was associated with higher IL-6 and IL-10 mRNA expression, as compared to cagA(−) strains. H. pylori infected children showed increased IFN‐γ and TNF‐α protein levels. IFN‐γ mRNA expression correlated with both H. pylori density of colonization and lymphocytic infiltration in the gastric mucosa, whereas TNF‐α protein expression correlated with bacterial density. Conclusion. H. pylori infection in children was characterized by (a) Th1 expression profile, (b) lack of mRNA overexpression of natural immunity receptors, and (c) strong anti‐inflammatory activities in the gastric mucosa, possibly resulting from increased activity of anti‐inflammatory M2 macrophages. This may explain the mildly inflammatory gastric inflammation often observed among H. pylori infected children.

Candida glabrata is currently ranked as the second most frequently isolated aetiological agent of human fungal infections, next only to Candida albicans. In comparison with C. albicans, C. glabrata shows lower susceptibility to azoles, the most common agents used in treatment of fungal infections. Interestingly, the mechanisms of resistance to azole agents in C. albicans have been much better investigated than those in C. glabrata. The aim of the presented study was to determine the mechanisms of resistance to azoles in 81 C. glabrata clinical isolates from three different hospitals in Poland. The investigation was carried out with a Sensititre Yeast One test and revealed that 18 strains were resistant to fluconazole, and 15 were cross-resistant to all other azoles tested (voriconazole, posaconazole and itraconazole). One isolate resistant to fluconazole was cross-resistant to voriconazole, and resistance to voriconazole only was observed in six other isolates. All strains were found to be susceptible to echinocandins and amphotericin B, and five were classified as resistant to 5-fluorocytosine. The sequence of the ERG11 gene encoding lanosterol 14-α demethylase (the molecular target of azoles) of 41 isolates, including all strains resistant to fluconazole and three resistant only to voriconazole, was determined, and no amino acid substitutions were found. Real-time PCR studies revealed that 13 of 15 azole-resistant strains showed upregulation of the CDR1 gene encoding the efflux pump. No upregulation of expression of the CDR2 or ERG11 gene was observed.

Campylobacter-associated gastroenteritis remains an important cause of morbidity worldwide, and some evidence suggests that poultry is an important source of this foodborne infection in humans. Thi...