Ss measures in 1985 when age 9, 12, or 15 yr and attended follow-up in young adulthood 20 yr later when measures of MetS were collected. Childhood measures of muscular fitness included strength (right and left grip, leg, and shoulder extension and flexion), endurance (number of push-ups in 30 s), and power (distance of a standing long jump). A muscular fitness score was created using all individual muscular fitness phenotypes. In adulthood, waist circumference, blood pressure, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose were measured. Adult outcomes were MetS defined using the harmonized definition and a continuous MetS risk score. Results Participants with childhood muscular strength, muscular power, and combined muscular fitness score in the highest third had significantly lower relative risk (RR) for MetS and a lower continuous MetS score in adulthood independent of cardiorespiratory fitness than those in the lowest third (strength: RR = 0.21 (0.09, 0.49) β = −0.46 (−0.59, −0.34) power: RR = 0.26 (0.12, 0.60), β = −0.36 (−0.49, −0.23) fitness score: RR = 0.20 (0.09, 0.47), β = −0.45 (−0.58, −0.33)). However, adjustment for childhood waist circumference reduced the effect sizes for both adult outcomes by 17%–60%. Conclusion Phenotypes of childhood muscular fitness can be used to predict adult MetS independent of cardiorespiratory fitness. Although a large proportion of the effect of childhood muscular fitness on adult MetS is potentially being mediated by child waist circumference, these data suggest that promotion of muscular fitness among children might provide additional protection against developing adult MetS....

Recent evidence suggests that the exposure of children to their parents' smoking adversely effects endothelial function in adulthood. We investigated whether the association was also present with carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) up to 25 years later. The study comprised participants from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study (YFS, n = 2401) and the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health (CDAH, n = 1375) study. Exposure to parental smoking (none, one, or both) was assessed at baseline by questionnaire. B-mode ultrasound of the carotid artery determined IMT in adulthood. Linear regression on a pooled dataset accounting for the hierarchical data and potential confounders including age, sex, parental education, participant smoking, education, and adult cardiovascular risk factors was conducted. Carotid IMT in adulthood was greater in those exposed to both parents smoking than in those whose parents did not smoke [adjusted marginal means: 0.647 mm ± 0.022 (mean ± SE) vs. 0.632 mm ± 0.021, P = 0.004]. Having both parents smoke was associated with vascular age 3.3 years greater at follow-up than having neither parent smoke. The effect was independent of participant smoking at baseline and follow-up and other confounders and was uniform across categories of age, sex, adult smoking status, and cohort. These results show the pervasive effect of exposure to parental smoking on children's vascular health up to 25 years later. There must be continued efforts to reduce smoking among adults to protect young people and to reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease across the population.