Oak decline presenting symptoms of tracheomycosis have been observed globally over long periods of time. Since the 1990s, oak decline has been considered to be a multifactorial process where abiotic predisposing factors play a significant role. Nevertheless, biotic factors, such as subcortical insects and fungal pathogens, may influence the decline process, as some insect species transmit spores of tracheomycotic pathogens. We investigated biotic agents (subcortical insects, Ophiostoma spp. and Phytophthora spp.) in six declining oak stands located within mesophytic and thermophytic zones in the Czech Republic, where five dry years occurred from 2015 to 2019. The spectrum of insect pests of oak stands was investigated using two methods: reared from logs from each stand and window traps. The presence of Ophiostoma fungi was assessed from cultivated woodblocks; Phytophthora pathogens were isolated from soil samples. In total, 2931 subcortical insect individuals were captured during the 2021 vegetation period. The most species-rich group of the subcortical insect complex involved in oak decline consisted of the families Cerambycidae: Xylotrechus antilope; Curculionidae: Scolytus intricatus, Xyleborus monographus; and Buprestidae: Agrilus biguttatus, A. sulcicollis. The presence of Ophiostoma was detected in all stands with different intensities between tree parts. Several important oak pests were positively correlated with the occurrence of Ophiostoma. On the contrary, from all soil samples, Phytophthora plurivora was found at only one studied oak stand. Based on the results, a new modified model of biotic and abiotic factors involved in the oak decline is proposed.

Introduction: Mortality of the riparian alder population caused by Phytophthora pathogens has been studied for over 20 years throughout Europe, recently gaining more importance in the context of evident climate change. The main objective of this study was to examine the pathogenicity of species from the “Phytophthora alni complex” present in the Czech Republic (P. × alni and P. uniformis) and P. plurivora to Alnus glutinosa seedlings grown at ambient and elevated CO₂ concentration.Methods: An underbark inoculation test was performed with seedlings grown from seeds collected from two Czech alder populations, one suffering from severe Phytophthora decline and the other disease-free.Results: The results showed significant differences in lesion development and seedling mortality. After a 13-week experimental period, at both CO₂ levels P. × alni and P. uniformis showed high aggressiveness to A. glutinosa seedlings causing lesions of variable sizes and mortality of 33.3%, and 45.8% of plants, respectively. In contrast, P. plurivora did not cause mortality to any plant, and lesion sizes did not differ significantly from those in control plants. Physiological measurements did not reveal any significant differences between Phytophthora species except for plants inoculated with P. plurivora showing increased values in specific physiological parameters 4 weeks post-inoculation. Net photosynthesis decreased over the measurement period in all treatments with significant differences found between measurements conducted 2 and 4 weeks after the inoculation. Transpiration showed a decreasing trend in all inoculated plants with no significant differences between Phytophthora species at both CO₂ levels. Chemical analyses of root samples showed high variability in sugars and phenolic compounds related to the plant's health status.Discussion: This is the first study to examine the response of alder seedlings to Phytophthora pathogens at different CO₂ levels. The findings demonstrate high aggressiveness of P. × alni and P. uniformis and weaker aggressiveness of P. plurivora to alder seedlings regardless of the CO₂ level.

Intensive forest and agroforestry management has greatly reduced the biodiversity of saproxylic organisms. Large trees are one of the most important refuges of saproxylic beetles. These large trees that grow outside and inside the forest are declining in the wider landscape. Heritage trees are one of the essential groups of beneficial trees in the landscape. We investigated saproxylic beetles associated with 35 selected oak heritage trees in Litovelské Pomoraví in the eastern Czech Republic. The study aimed to investigate the distribution of saproxylic beetles on trees growing inside or at the edge of forest stands, or on free-growing heritage trees. The other studied variables were the height, DBH, and light condition (sunny or shady) of heritage trees. The results showed that sunny habitats were the only significant factor found for all saproxylic species. However, the significance of increasing tree trunk dimension was found for the endangered species. Diversity indices q = 0 (species richness) and q = 1 (exponential of Shannon entropy index) were also higher for sunny trees, while solitary trees showed a high Shannon index value despite the low number of samples. Redundancy analysis of saproxylic species showed that the preferred habitats of most species were sunny massive solitary oaks. The results indicated that strictly protected heritage trees scattered in the landscape are crucial sanctuaries for many species—especially in landscapes where there are not enough suitable habitats for saproxylic beetles. Finding, conserving, and protecting these rare types of massive trees in the landscape has a significant impact on the conservation of saproxylic beetle biodiversity.