Creatinine is an amino acid derived from creatine catabolism at different steps of the body's organs, and its detection is significant because levels out of normal values are linked to some diseases like kidney failure.

The use of three-dimensional flow-through nanoporous electrodes and the merging of a flow-through and air-breathing cathode were explored and successfully applied in a formic acid air-breathing nanofluidic fuel cell. The effects of fuel concentration, reaction stoichiometry and catalyst mass loading were investigated, resulting in power densities ranging from 28 to 100 mW cm⁻².

A rechargeable ZAB was assembled using a NiCo₂O₄3DOM spinel displaying an open circuit potential of 1.44 V, a power density of 101 mW cm⁻², and a high durability during charge/discharge cycling (being operated for 21 h).