Introduction: The activation of the kynurenine pathway in cancer progression and metastasis through immunomodulatory pathways has drawn attention to the potential for kynurenine pathway inhibition. The activation of the kynurenine pathway, which results in the production of kynurenine metabolites through the degradation of tryptophan, promotes the development of intrinsically malignant properties in cancer cells while facilitating tumour immune escape. In addition, kynurenine metabolites act as biologically active substances to promote cancer development and metastasis.Methods: A literature review was conducted to investigate the role of the tryptophan‐kynurenine pathway in immunomodulation and cancer metastasis.Results: Evidence suggests that several enzymes and metabolites implicated in the kynurenine pathway are overexpressed in various cancers. As such, the tryptophan pathway represents a promising target for cancer treatment. However, downstream signalling pathways, including aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation, have previously induced diverse biological effects in various malignancies, which resulted in either the promotion or the inhibition of metastasis.Conclusion: As a result, a thorough investigation of the kynurenine pathway and its regulatory mechanisms is necessary in order to properly comprehend the effects of kynurenine pathway activation involved in cancer development and metastasis.

Malaria is a deadly disease caused by protozoan pathogens of the Plasmodium parasite. Transmission to humans occurs through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 247 million cases of malaria were recorded worldwide in 2021, with approximately 619 000 malaria deaths. The initial signs of malaria can be mild and challenging to diagnose due to the signs and symptoms being similar to those of other illnesses. The malaria burden remains largely concentrated in the WHO sub-Saharan African region and has been recognised as a significant contributor to morbidity and mortality. This review aims to contribute to the existing knowledge on malaria in South Africa, a region within sub-Saharan Africa, focusing on the epidemiology and life cycle of the malaria parasite as well as diagnostic approaches for detecting malaria. In addition, nonpharmacological and pharmacological interventions for treating and preventing malaria infections will also be discussed herein. While there has been a significant reduction in the global burden of this disease, malaria remains a public health issue in South Africa. As such, the implementation of effective preventative measures and strategies, early diagnosis, and appropriate treatment regimens are crucial to reducing the malaria burden in South Africa.

Background: Cutaneous melanoma is a relentless form of cancer which continues to rise in incidence. Currently, cutaneous melanoma is the leading cause of skin cancer‐related mortality, which can mainly be attributed to its metastatic potential. The activation of chemokine axes is a major contributor to melanoma metastasis through its involvement in promoting tumour cell migration, proliferation, survival, and adhesion. This review will focus on the role of chemokines in melanoma and possible therapeutic strategies to alter chemokine activation and subsequently inhibit the activation of signalling cascades that may promote metastasis.Methods: A literature review was conducted to evaluate chemokines as possible therapeutic targets in metastatic melanoma.Results: The crosstalk between signalling pathways and immune responses in the melanoma microenvironment resembles a complex and dynamic system. Therefore, the involvement of governing chemokine axes in the promotion of cutaneous and metastatic melanoma demands a proper understanding of the tumour microenvironment in order to identify possible targets and develop appropriate treatments against melanoma.Conclusion: Even though chemokine axes are regarded as promising therapeutic targets, it has become increasingly evident that chemokines can play a critical role in both tumour inhibition and promotion. The inhibition of chemokine axes to inhibit signalling cascades in target cells that regulate metastasis should, therefore, be carefully approached.

The metastatic behavior of melanoma has accentuated the need for specific therapy targets. Compounds, namely l‐kynurenine ( l‐kyn), quinolinic acid (Quin), and kynurenic acid (KA) previously displayed antiproliferative and cytotoxic effects in vitro against cancer cells. Despite the growing interest in these compounds there are limited studies examining the in vitro effects on melanoma. In B16 F10 melanoma cells, RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, and HaCat keratinocyte cells, postexposure to the compounds, crystal violet staining was used to determine the half‐maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀), whereas polarization‐optical transmitted light differential interference contrast and light microscopy after hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was used to assess morphological changes. l‐kyn, Quin, and KA‐induced cytotoxicity in all cell lines, with l‐kyn being the most cytotoxic compound. l‐kyn and KA at IC₅₀‐induced morphological changes in B16 F10, RAW 264.7, and HaCat cell lines, whereas Quin had effects on B16 F10 and RAW 264.7 cells but did not affect HaCat cells. l‐kyn, Quin, and KA each display different levels of cytotoxicity, which were cell line specific. l‐kyn was shown to be the most potent compound against all cell lines and may offer future treatment strategies when combined with other viable treatments against melanoma.

Melanoma is an aggressive malignancy and remains a major cause of skin cancer mortality, highlighting the need for new treatment strategies. Recent findings revealed that L‐kynurenine and quinolinic acid induce cytotoxicity and morphological changes in B16 F10 melanoma cells in vitro. This paper highlights the effects of L‐kynurenine and quinolinic acid at previously determined half‐maximal inhibitory concentrations on cell cycle progression, cell death and extracellular signal‐regulated protein kinase inhibition. Melanoma, B16 F10 and murine macrophages, RAW 264.7 cells were used in this study, as both cell lines express all the enzymes associated with the kynurenine pathway. Post exposure to the compounds at half‐maximal inhibitory concentrations, transmission electron microscopy was used to assess intracellular morphological changes. Flow cytometry was used to analyse cell cycle progression and quantify apoptosis via the dual staining of Annexin V and propidium iodide and cell survival via extracellular signal‐regulated protein kinase. L‐kynurenine and quinolinic acid at half‐maximal inhibitory concentrations induced intracellular morphological changes representative of cell death. Flow cytometry revealed alterations in cell cycle distribution, increased apoptosis and significantly inhibition of cell survival. L‐kynurenine and quinolinic acid are exogenous kynurenine compounds which inhibited cell survival through extracellular signal‐regulated protein kinase inhibition, induced cell cycle alterations and induced apoptosis in B16 F10 melanoma cells.

Introduction: Pharmacology is an increasingly important area of study for oral hygienists, as it provides the scientific basis for safe and effective oral healthcare. However, a lack of fundamental understanding of the discipline among clinical graduates can present significant challenges. Oral hygienists require pharmacological training to meet the requirements of their scope of practice. Pharmacology knowledge assists with the diagnosis and treatment of oral conditions and forms the foundation for further clinical competency development. The knowledge and perceptions of pharmacology for pharmacy, nursing and medical students have been well documented; however, little information is present for Bachelor of Oral Hygiene (BOH) students. This paper sets out to evaluate BOH students' and recent graduates' knowledge and perceptions of pharmacology at a single higher institution in Pretoria to identify possible gaps and weaknesses.Methods: A cross‐sectional study design was used to collect data using an online questionnaire. The English‐language questionnaire consisted of the self‐reported perceptions and knowledge and actual knowledge of pharmacology of undergraduate BOH students and recent graduates. The questionnaire consisted of multiple choice questions, true or false questions and Likert scale questions. Ethics was obtained from the institution's Research Ethics Committee (REC 350/2021).Results: Overall, the participants perceived the pharmacology module positively and understood its importance. Concerns were raised about insufficient time for studying and that assessments were more aligned to gaining factual knowledge than the development of problem‐solving skills. Students rated their knowledge between 57.24% and 69.44%, with BOH III students and graduates having a statistically significant greater self‐rated knowledge of antivirals, antifungals and common agents used to treat oral conditions in comparison with BOH I and BOH II students. Overall, BOH students and graduates' actual knowledge was between 45.24% and 66.84%. Although not statistically significant, the total self‐rated knowledge of BOH III students and recent graduates tended to be higher than their actual knowledge. Knowledge deficits were evident with some pharmacological concepts across the various BOH groups, such as pharmacokinetics, pain, drugs altering dental treatment I: central nervous system drugs, drugs altering dental treatment II: respiratory and endocrine drugs, drugs altering dental treatment III: cardiovascular drugs, drug–drug interactions and common agents used to treat oral conditions.Conclusion: Self‐rated knowledge deficiencies were noted by students and recent graduates for certain pharmacological concepts and were supported by the measurement of their actual knowledge. Further investigation into knowledge deficiencies is needed to guide curriculum review to further strengthen oral hygienists' pharmacological competencies and ensure alignment to their scope of practice.