Proteins obtained from alternative sources such as plants, microorganisms, and insects have attracted considerable interest in the formulation of new food products that have a lower environmental footprint and offer means to feed a growing world population. In contrast to many established proteins, and protein fractions for which a substantial amount of knowledge has accumulated over the years, much less information is available on these emerging proteins. This article reviews the current state of knowledge on alternative proteins and their sources, highlighting gaps that currently pose obstacles to their more widespread application in the food industry. The compositional, structural, and functional properties of alternative proteins from various sources, including plants, algae, fungi, and insects, are critically reviewed. In particular, we focus on the factors associated with the creation of protein-rich functional ingredients from alternative sources. The various protein fractions in these sources are described as well as their behavior under different environmental conditions (e.g., pH, ionic strength, and temperature). The extraction approaches available to produce functional protein ingredients from these alternative sources are introduced as well as challenges associated with designing large-scale commercial processes. The key technofunctional properties of alternative proteins, such as solubility, interfacial activity, emulsification, foaming, and gelation properties, are introduced. In particular, we focus on the formation of isotropic and anisotropic structures suitablefor creating meat and dairy product analogs using various structuring techniques. Finally, selected studies on consumer acceptance and sustainability of alternative protein products are considered.

Plant proteins are being considered to become the most important protein source of the future, and to do so, they must be able to replace the animal-derived proteins currently in use as techno-functional food ingredients. This poses challenges because plant proteins are oftentimes storage proteins with a high molecular weight and low water solubility. One promising approach to overcome these limitations is the glycation of plant proteins. The covalent bonding between the proteins and different carbohydrates created via the initial stage of the Maillard reaction can improve the techno-functional characteristics of these proteins without the involvement of potentially toxic chemicals. However, compared to studies with animal-derived proteins, glycation studies on plant proteins are currently still underrepresented in literature. This review provides an overview of the existing studies on the glycation of the major groups of plant proteins with different carbohydrates using different preparation methods. Emphasis is put on the reaction conditions used for glycation as well as the modifications to physicochemical properties and techno-functionality. Different applications of these glycated plant proteins in emulsions, foams, films, and encapsulation systems are introduced. Another focus lies on the reaction chemistry of the Maillard reaction and ways to harness it for controlled glycation and to limit the formation of undesired advanced glycation products. Finally, challenges related to the controlled glycation of plant proteins to improve their properties are discussed.

In this study we investigated the effect of droplet size on the antimicrobial activity of emulsions containing two essential oil compounds that are known for their antimicrobial effectiveness: carvacrol and eugenol. Coarse emulsions were prepared by blending a triacylglyceride (Miglyol 812N) containing various concentrations of carvacrol or eugenol (5, 15, 30, 50 wt%) at an oil droplet mass fraction of 10 wt% with an aqueous phase containing 2 wt% Tween 80^®. Premixes were then further dispersed using a high shear blender, a high pressure homogenizer at different pressures or an ultrasonicator to produce droplets with a variety of mean diameters. Microscopy and light scattering storage stability studies over 10 days indicated that manufactured emulsions were stable, i.e. that no aggregation, creaming or other destabilization mechanisms occurred and droplet size distributions remained unchanged. The antimicrobial activity of emulsions was assessed against two model microorganisms, the Gram negative Escherichia coli C 600 and the Gram positive Listeria innocua, by determining growth over time behavior. The analysis yielded the unexpected result that emulsions with larger droplet sizes were more effective at inhibiting growth and inactivating cells than smaller ones. For example, emulsions with a mean oil droplet size of 3000 nm at a concentration of 800 ppm carvacrol completely inhibited L. innocua, while for 80 nm emulsions, only a delay of growth could be observed. Measurements of the concentration of the antimicrobial compounds in the aqueous phase indicated that concentrations of eugenol and carvacrol decreased with decreasing oil droplet sizes. Determination of interfacial tension further showed that eugenol and carvacrol are preferentially located in the oil–water interfaces. Theoretical calculations of Tween 80^® concentrations needed to saturate interfaces suggested that in small emulsions for the given formulation less Tween 80^® micelles are present in the aqueous phase. We therefore attribute the fact that antimicrobial nanoemulsions are less active than macroemulsions due to an increased sequestering of antimicrobials in emulsion interfaces and a decreased solubilization in excess Tween 80^® micelles.

Microalgae are unicellular microorganisms that can be rich in proteins and are therefore a valuable ingredient in different foods. So far microalgae are mainly utilized in foods in low concentrations as a whole-cell ingredient even though it is known that proteins extracted from microalgae can possibly posess various technofunctional properties, such as high protein solubility, emulsification, foaming, and gelation properties. The widespread usage of protein-rich ingredients obtained from microalgae is for the most part prevented by the high price of the biomass, the lack of efficient downstream processes, and the adverse taste. The aim of this review is to give insights into the fundamental properties of the growth and processing of microalgae, highlight the advantages of microalgae ingredients and show potential applications based on the technofunctional, nutritional and sensory properties that were reported. Moreover, the existing challenges and knowledge gaps that hinder the application of microalgal proteins in foods are discussed.