This study is the first to investigate the ingestion of microplastics (MPs), plasticizers, additives, and particles of micro-litter < 100 μm by larvae of Simuliidae (Diptera) in rivers. Blackflies belong to a small cosmopolitan insect family whose larvae are present alongside river courses, often with a torrential regime, up to their mouths. Specimens of two species of blackfly larvae, Simulium equinum and Simulium ornatum, were collected in two rivers in Central Italy, the Mignone and the Treja. Small microplastics (SMPs, 90%. Differences in the abundances of the SMPs and APFs ingested by the two species under exam were statistically significant. Additives and plasticizers can be specific to a particular polymer; thus, these compounds can be proxies for the presence of plastic polymers in the environment.

Climatic changes are associated with heat waves, droughts, and floods which have significant impacts on human health. Floods enhance the effects of water-borne pathogens increasing the concentration of biological agents in surface water. On the basis of national statistics collected by the Italian Ministry of Health, this work illustrates preliminary observations concerning outbreaks of water-borne diseases after flood events in Italy and presents options for an administrative response. The water-borne infectious diseases taken into account are Legionellosis, Salmonellosis, Hepatitis A, cutaneous and visceral Leishmaniasis, Leptospirosis, and Infectious Diarrhea. An association between these infectious diseases and flood events seems to exist in Italy, although further analysis should be carried out to confirm this relationship. Flood impacts can be distinguished into: immediate, medium term, and long term. Several factors are involved in determining the intensity and the severity of effects. Some vector-borne infectious diseases are likely to become more frequent due to changes in vector distribution and lifecycle dynamics associated with climate change. Health care systems should develop new strategies for a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of changing weather conditions on human health.

In conclusion, black flies can be considered good environmental indicators to assess ecological health of both watercourses and surrounding landscapes.