Filamentous fungi occur widely in the environment, contaminating soil, air, food and other substrates. Due to their wide distribution, they have medical and economic implications. Regardless of their use as a source of antibiotics, vitamins and raw materials for various industrially important chemicals, most fungi and filamentous fungi produce metabolites associated with a range of health risks, both in humans and in animals. The association of filamentous fungi and their metabolites to different negative health conditions in humans and animals, has contributed to the importance of investigating different health risks induced by this family of heterotrophs. This review aims to discuss health risks associated with commonly occurring filamentous fungal species which belong to genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium, as well as evaluating their pathogenicity and mycotoxic properties.

Although cultivated for over 7000 years, mainly for production of cotton fibre, the cotton plant has not been fully explored for potential uses of its other parts. Despite cotton containing many important chemical compounds, limited understanding of its phytochemical composition still exists. In order to add value to waste products of the cotton industry, such as cotton gin trash, this review focuses on phytochemicals associated with different parts of cotton plants and their biological activities. Three major classes of compounds and some primary metabolites have been previously identified in the plant. Among these compounds, most terpenoids and their derivatives (51), fatty acids (four), and phenolics (six), were found in the leaves, bolls, stalks, and stems. Biological activities, such as anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory activities, are associated with some of these phytochemicals. For example, β-bisabolol, a sesquiterpenoid enriched in the flowers of cotton plants, may have anti-inflammatory product application. Considering the abundance of biologically active compounds in the cotton plant, there is scope to develop a novel process within the current cotton fibre production system to separate these valuable phytochemicals, developing them into potentially high-value products. This scenario may present the cotton processing industry with an innovative pathway towards a waste-to-profit solution.

Recently, methods to analyze aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and dairy products have been developed for both screening purposes (i.e., rapid, economical, and simple methods) and for confirmation by accurate, reproducible, and sensitive quantification. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of different rapid kits and techniques available on the market by using different analytical methods: thin layer chromatography (TLC), immunoaffinity column, AFM1 immunochromatographic strip, and ELISA; some samples were also submitted to HPLC for comparison of results. One hundred thirty-eight samples were collected from rural subsistence and commercial dairy farms in selected areas of Egypt and South Africa and analyzed for the presence of AFM1. The results obtained by AFM1 immunochromatographic strip indicated the lowest frequency of occurrence, with a detection incidence of 20.45% in Egyptian samples and 16% in South African samples. Aflatoxin M1 was detected by ELISA in 65 (73.9%) Egyptian milk samples, with a range of 8.52 to 78.06 ng/L, and in 34 (68%) South African milk samples, with a range of 5 to 120 ng/L. A higher incidence of AFM1 in Egyptian milk samples was shown by TLC (81.8%) compared with ELISA (73.9%). Samples analyzed by ELISA in South African milk samples demonstrated satisfactory correlation when compared with HPLC coupled with Coring cell (an electrochemical cell for the derivatization of AFM1). Among the positive samples, 18 of the Egyptian samples (20.45%) positive by ELISA had levels of AFM1 above the European Union (EU) regulatory limit (50 ng/L), whereas 65 samples (73.9%) were above the Egyptian regulatory limit (0 ng/L). Six of the South African samples (12%) tested by ELISA were above the South African (50 ng/L) and EU regulatory limits. The mean concentration of AFM1 was 25.79 ng/L in Egyptian samples and 17.06 ng/L by ELISA and 39 ng/L by HPLC in South African samples. These contamination levels would not represent a serious public health hazard according to EU legislation.

Fusarium species (spp.) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) contaminations were monitored in maize and porridge consumed by a rural population of Limpopo Province, South Africa. Faecal samples were also analysed for FB₁ as a means of estimating the degree of dietary exposure to this mycotoxin. In total, 142 samples of maize (n = 54), porridge (47) and faeces (41) were screened for Fusarium spp. using a serial dilution technique followed by DNA sequencing, while FB₁ was further screened and quantified by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), respectively. At least four species of Fusarium were identified, of which F. verticillioides was the most prevalent in all three sample types analysed. The contamination levels of FB₁ were significantly higher in 87% of maize sampled (range = 101–53,863 µg kg⁻¹) as compared with porridge (74% incidence rate; range = 0.2–20 µg kg⁻¹) and faecal samples (100% incidence rate; range = 0.3–464 µg kg⁻¹). Thus, it can be deduced that the level of human exposure to FB₁ via the consumption of maize was high as several samples contained levels exceeding 1000 µg kg⁻¹, which was strongly supported by the levels found in faecal samples. Further data revealed that a high proportion of FB₁ is destroyed or removed by processing maize into porridge. As maize porridge is consumed as a staple, the low levels found provide a means to limit exposure to FB₁. Levels of FB₁ found in the faeces which were higher indicate that other foods contaminated with the toxin are also consumed.

A total of sixty-four (64) samples consisting of cocoa (processed and non-processed) and cocoa based powder beverages were collected from fields, stores and markets in different areas in south-western Nigeria and screened for the five major mycotoxins-aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FBs). Mycotoxins analyses were done after extraction by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which showed contamination of the food commodities by major mycotoxins (AFs, OTA, DON, ZEA and FBs) at different incidences and concentration ranges. Results from HPLC analysis showed concentration of AFs, OTA, fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), fumonisin B₂ (FB₂), ZEA and DON up to 16.01μg/kg, 884.8μg/kg, 440μg/kg, 20.2μg/kg, 2364.7μg/kg and 8.5μg/kg respectively in the different food samples analysed. The contamination and co-contamination of these food commodities by some of these mycotoxins at concentrations above the different set regulatory limits by the EU and other countries is of concern with attendant health risks, particularly for Nigerians who consume these contaminated cocoa and cocoa products as part of their diets.

Background: Micro-organisms are found occurring in both indoor and outdoor environments. Restrooms and bathrooms are places where people go to relieve themselves as well as clean up, posing the possibility of these places being prone to microbial contamination. Methods: A total of twenty public and private residence bathrooms used by students in a Nigerian university were screened for the occurrence of bacterial contamination. Bathroom walls were swabbed and samples analysed for microbial occurrence using different biological growth media. Organisms isolated were characterized morphologically and further identified using some biochemical tests including catalase, methyl red, Voges Proskauer, oxidase, citrate utilization and urease activity tests. Results: Results from the study showed different gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria isolated including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Clostridium difficle and Klebsiella pneumoniae from both public and private bathrooms of students, with highest percentage incidence recorded for Staphylococcus aureus 15.6% and 12.9% in public and private bathrooms respectively. Conclusion: The little difference in microbial contamination between private and public bathrooms observed in the study shows that maintaining microbial free bathrooms is not only dependent on the number of users but their personal hygiene practice meaning that proper and regular cleaning can ensure an almost microbial free bathrooms in public institutions.