This study focused on the uniform distribution of graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets in cement composites and their effect on microstructure and performance. For this, three polymer dispersants with different level of polar groups (weak, mild, and strong) poly(acrylamide-methacrylic acid) (PAM), poly(acrylonitrile-hydroxyethyl acrylate) (PAH), and poly(allylamine-acrylamide) (PAA) were used to form intercalation composites with GO nanosheets. The results indicated that GO nanosheets can exist as individual 1–2, 2–5, and 3–8 layers in GO/PAA, GO/PAH, and GO/PAM intercalation composites, respectively. The few-layered (1–2 layers) GO can be uniformly distributed in cement composites and promote the formation of regular-shaped crystals and a compact microstructure. The compressive strengths of the blank, control, GO/PAM, GO/PAH, and GO/PAA cement composites were 55.72, 78.31, 89.75, 116.82, and 128.32 MPa, respectively. Their increase ratios relative to the blank sample were 40.54%, 61.07%, 109.66%, and 130.29%, respectively. Their corresponding flexural strengths were 7.53, 10.85, 12.35, 15.97, and 17.68 MPa, respectively, which correspond to improvements of 44.09%, 64.01%, 112.09%, and 134.79%.