Background: Exercise modes can be divided into open skill exercise (OSE) and closed skill exercise (CSE). While research has shown that these two exercise modes may have different effects on cognitive function, this possibility has not been systematically reviewed. Objective: The purpose of the present review was to objectively evaluate the research literature regarding the effects of OSE versus CSE on cognitive function. Methods: Six electronic databases (Web of Science, EMBASE, Google Scholar, PubMed, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus) were searched from inception dates to December 2018 for studies examining the associations of OSE and CSE with cognitive function. The literature searches were conducted using the combinations of two groups of relevant search items related to exercise modes (i.e., OSE and CSE) and cognitive function. Articles were limited to human studies in all age groups. Both intervention and observational studies with full text published in English-language peer-reviewed journals were considered eligible. The search process, study selection, data extraction, and study quality assessment were carried out independently by two researchers. Results: A total of 1,573 articles were identified. Fourteen observational and five intervention studies met the inclusion criteria. Twelve of the 14 observational studies found that OSE benefits cognitive function, and seven of these 14 observational studies supported superior effects of OSE compared with CSE for enhancing cognitive function. Three of the five intervention studies found that OSE (versus CSE) led to greater improvements in cognitive function in both children and older adults. Conclusion: Although the majority of studies in this review were observational cross-sectional designs, the review tends to support that OSE is more effective for improving some aspects of cognitive function compared with CSE. More rigorous randomized control trials with long-term follow-ups are needed in order to confirm these differential cognitive effects of the two exercise modes.

Subthreshold depression (SD) affects a significant proportion of adolescent females, posing a risk of major depression in later life. This study examines the effects of open-skill exercise (OSE) and closed-skill exercise (CSE) on SD, executive function (EF), and emotional states in female adolescents. A double-blind randomized controlled trial involved 95 female adolescents (mean age = 16.73 ± 0.42 years) with SD symptoms. Participants were assigned to OSE, CSE, or control (CON) groups and underwent an 8-week exercise program. Primary outcomes were assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-13) and the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), with secondary outcomes including EF tasks and emotional assessments. Differences were examined using generalized linear mixed models with intention-to-treat and multiple imputation. Both OSE and CSE significantly reduced depressive symptoms, with CSE showing greater improvement. EF assessments showed enhanced cognitive flexibility and working memory in both exercise groups at 4 weeks, and superior inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility in the CSE group at 8 weeks. Emotional assessments indicated a notable reduction in negative emotions in the CSE group after 8 weeks. Both OSE and CSE reduce SD symptoms in female adolescents, with CSE providing more sustained benefits for EF and emotional states. Further research on exercise interventions for mental health is warranted.Trial registration number: ChiCTR2400081139.

Introduction: As the Chinese government places an increasing emphasis on public fitness services, there has been a concomitant growth in public demand for greater fiscal expenditure in this area. However, in light of the constrained growth in government financial resources, it is of paramount importance to allocate these resources in a rational manner in order to effectively address the public’s fitness and health needs. This study aims to evaluate the efficiency of public expenditure on national fitness services across China, thereby providing valuable insights for policymakers to optimize resource allocation and improve service efficiency.Methods: The study employs a super-efficiency Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) model, in conjunction with the Malmquist Index and Tobit regression model, to assess the efficiency of fiscal spending on fitness services in 31 Chinese provinces from 2017 to 2020. The analysis employs both static and dynamic approaches to present an objective view of the development of public fitness service levels across different regions and to empirically identify the key factors influencing fiscal spending efficiency.Results: The findings indicate substantial regional variations in the efficiency of fiscal expenditure on public fitness services. While some provinces demonstrate high efficiency in the use of public funds, others exhibit notable inefficiencies, particularly in areas with lower levels of economic development and population density. The findings underscore the existence of redundant expenditure and the varying effectiveness of resource utilization across provinces.Discussion: The study recommends that future strategies prioritize the scientific planning of fiscal inputs into public fitness services, the precise optimization of expenditure structures, the exploration of collaborative supply mechanisms, the expansion of demand-driven feedback channels, the integration of technological innovations, and the acceleration of digitalization in public fitness services.

Background: This study aimed to investigate the effects of self-paced cycling at an active workstation on executive functions and cortical activity. Methods: In a crossover study design, 37 young adults (45.9% females) were randomly assigned to the following two task conditions: (1) performing cognitive tests during sitting, (2) performing cognitive tests while cycling at an active workstation. Executive functions were assessed by the Stroop color and word test and the task-switching paradigm. Cortical activity was monitored using a multi-channel functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) system. Results: The behavioral results showed that there were no significant differences on the Stroop interference effects (P = 0.66) between the sitting and the cycling conditions. In all probability, no differences on the global switch costs (P = 0.90) and local switch costs (P = 0.67) were observed between the sitting and the cycling conditions. For the fNIRS results, the oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) in response to the Stroop interference in channels 5, 10, and 12 were decreased during the cycling condition (all Ps < 0.05, FDR-corrected). Conversely, the oxy-Hb associated with the global switch costs in channels 3, 29, and 31 were increased during the cycling condition (all Ps < 0.05, FDR-corrected). Conclusions: The findings indicated that behavioral performances on executive functions were not affected by cycling at an active workstation, while cognitive resources were reallocated during cycling at an active workstation.

Background: With the development of educational philosophy, physical exercise is considered to be an important factor in the development of individual cognitive abilities in adolescents. However, the effects of physical exercise on non-cognitive abilities in adolescents remain inadequate. Objective: This study examined the effect of physical exercise on non-cognitive ability and further examined the differences in this effect in different groups. Methods: Survey data on non-cognitive ability, physical exercise and covariates were collected in the China Education Panel Survey (2014–2015) from a nationally representative sample of adolescents (n = 7904) in the eighth (follow-up) grade. Results: The results show that, after controlling for the influence of other factors, physical exercise has a promoting effect on six non-cognitive abilities—social behavior (p < 0.001), communication ability (p < 0.01), perseverance (p < 0.05), school adaptation (p < 0.001), educational expectation (p < 0.01) and creative thinking (p < 0.01)—and there is no significant effect on emotional control (p > 0.05). Furthermore, the development of non-cognitive ability in physical exercise shows certain group differences. Conclusions: There are gender differences in the performance of non-cognitive ability. Girls perform better than boys in non-cognitive ability. Physical exercise is an important means to develop non-cognitive ability, which indicates that non-cognitive ability has plasticity in adolescence. Future intervention may improve the non-cognitive ability of Chinese adolescents by increasing physical exercise.