The basic‐helix‐loop‐helix‐leucine zipper (bHLHZip) proteins Myc, Mad and Mnt are part of a transcription activation/repression system involved in the regulation of cell proliferation. The function of these proteins as transcription factors is mediated by heterodimerization with the small bHLHZip protein Max, which is required for their specific DNA binding to E‐box sequences. We have identified a novel Max‐interacting protein, Mga, which contains a Myc‐like bHLHZip motif, but otherwise shows no relationship with Myc or other Max‐interacting proteins. Like Myc, Mad and Mnt proteins, Mga requires heterodimerization with Max for binding to the preferred Myc–Max‐binding site CACGTG. In addition to the bHLHZip domain, Mga contains a second DNA‐binding domain: the T‐box or T‐domain. The T‐domain is a highly conserved DNA‐binding motif originally defined in Brachyury and characteristic of the Tbx family of transcription factors. Mga binds the preferred Brachyury‐binding sequence and represses transcription of reporter genes containing promoter‐proximal Brachyury‐binding sites. Surprisingly, Mga is converted to a transcription activator of both Myc–Max and Brachyury site‐containing reporters in a Max‐dependent manner. Our results suggest that Mga functions as a dual‐specificity transcription factor that regulates the expression of both Max‐network and T‐box family target genes.

Mutations in Tbx3 are responsible for ulnar-mammary syndrome (UMS), an autosomal dominant disorder affecting limb, tooth, hair, apocrine gland and genital development. Tbx3 is a member of a family of transcription factors that share a highly conserved DNA-binding domain known as the T-domain. UMS-causing mutations in Tbx3 have been found at numerous sites within the TBX3 gene, with many occurring downstream from the N-terminally located T-domain. The occurrence of mutations downstream of the DNA-binding domain raises the possibility that there exist important functional domains in C-terminal portions of the Tbx3 protein that affect its behavior as a transcription factor. To determine if and how such C-terminal mutations affect transcription we have mapped regions that confer transcriptional activity and nuclear localization and characterized the DNA binding properties of Tbx3. We find that Tbx3 binds the canonical Brachyury binding site as a monomer and represses transcription. We show that a key repression domain (RD1) resides in the Tbx3 C-terminus that can function as a portable repression domain. Most UMS-associated C-terminal mutants lack the RD1 and exhibit decreased or loss of transcriptional repression activity. In addition, we identify a domain responsible for nuclear localization of Tbx3 and show that two C-terminal mutants of Tbx3 have increased rates of protein decay. Finally, we show that Tbx3 can immortalize primary embryo fibroblasts and that the RD1 repression domain is required for this activity. Our results identify critical functional domains within the Tbx3 protein and facilitate interpretation of the functional consequences of present and future UMS mutations.

Tbx3 is a member of the T-box family of transcription factors. Mutations in Tbx3 cause ulnar-mammary syndrome, an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by upper limb defects, apocrine-gland defects including mammary hypoplasia, and tooth, hair and genital defects. In cell culture, Tbx3 and its close relative Tbx2 are capable of immortalizing mouse embryo fibroblasts. We show that expression of Tbx3 together with Myc or oncogenic Ras (H-Ras^Val17) leads to efficient transformation of mouse embryo fibroblasts. Oncogene cooperation by Tbx3 correlates with an ability of Tbx3 to suppress the induction of p19ARF and p53 that is typically caused by overexpression Myc and Ras, and to protect against Myc-induced apoptosis. Whereas Tbx3 is capable of interfering with apoptosis caused by excessive Myc levels, a Tbx3 mutant lacking its C-terminal repression domain shows no anti-apoptotic activity and fails to repress levels of p19ARF or p53. Consistent with an ability to suppress p53 pathway function, we find that Tbx3, but not a Tbx3 C-terminal mutant, efficiently blocks myogenic differentiation of C2C12 myoblasts. Our results support the idea that deregulation and/or excessive levels of Tbx3 may have oncogenic potential in vivo.

The c-Myc oncoprotein is strongly induced during the G0 to S-phase transition and is an important regulator of cell cycle entry. In contrast to c-Myc, the putative Myc antagonist Mnt is maintained at a constant level during cell cycle entry. Mnt and Myc require interaction with Max for specific DNA binding at E-box sites, but have opposing transcriptional activities. Here, we show that c-Myc induction during cell cycle entry leads to a transient decrease in Mnt–Max complexes and a transient switch in the ratio of Mnt–Max to c-Myc–Max on shared target genes. Mnt overexpression suppressed cell cycle entry and cell proliferation, suggesting that the ratio of Mnt–Max to c-Myc–Max is critical for cell cycle entry. Furthermore, simultaneous Cre-Lox mediated deletion of Mnt and c-Myc in mouse embryo fibroblasts rescued the cell cycle entry and proliferative block caused by c-Myc ablation alone. These results demonstrate that Mnt-Myc antagonism plays a fundamental role in regulating cell cycle entry and proliferation.