Fish is a good source of nutrients, although it is easily spoiled. As such, drying is a common method of preserving fish to compensate for its perishability. Dried fish exists in different cultures with varying types of fish used and drying methods. These delicacies are not only consumed for their convenience and for their health benefits, as discussed in this review. Most commonly, salt and spices are added to dried fish to enhance the flavours and to decrease the water activity (a_w) of the fish, which further aids the drying process. For fish to be dried effectively, the temperature, drying environment, and time need to be considered along with the butchering method used on the raw fish prior to drying. Considering the various contributing factors, several physicochemical and biochemical changes will certainly occur in the fish. In this review, the pH, water activity (a_w), lipid oxidation, and colour changes in fish drying are discussed as well as the proximate composition of dried fish. With these characteristic changes in dried fish, the sensory, microbial and safety aspects of dried fish are also affected, revolving around the preferences of consumers and their health concerns, especially based on how drying is efficient in eliminating/reducing harmful microbes from the fish. Interestingly, several studies have focused on upscaling the efficiency of dried fish production to generate a safer line of dried fish products with less effort and time. An exploratory approach of the published literature was conducted to achieve the purpose of this review. This evaluation gathers important information from all available library databases from 1990 to 2022. In general, this review will benefit the fishery and food industry by enabling them to enhance the efficiency and safety of fish drying, hence minimising food waste without compromising the quality and nutritional values of dried fish.

Moringa oleifera is an ancient remedy plant, known as the miraculous plant due to its many prominent uses and significant health benefits. It is a nutrient-rich plant, with exceptional bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols that possess several medicinal properties. Many significant studies have been carried out to evaluate the ethnomedicinal and pharmacological properties of M. oleifera in various applications. Therefore, this comprehensive review compiles and summarizes important findings from recent studies on the potential properties of different parts of M. oleifera. The pharmacological properties of M. oleifera have been studied for various potential biological properties, such as cardio-protective, anti-oxidative, antiviral, antibacterial, anti-diabetic and anti-carcinogenic effects. Therefore, the potential of this plant is even more anticipated. This review also highlights the safety and toxicity effects of M. oleifera treatment at various doses, including in vitro, in vivo and clinical trials from human studies.

Annona muricata is a common plant used in Africa and South America to manage various types of disease. However, there is insufficient toxicological information or published standard available regarding repeated dose animal toxicity data. As part of the safety assessment, we exposed Sprague Dawley rats to an acute oral toxicity of A. muricata. The intent of the current study was to use advanced proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR) in serum and urinary metabolomics evaluation techniques to provide the in vivo acute toxicological profile of A. muricata leaf ethanol extract in accordance with the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) 423 guidelines. A single 2000 mg/kg dose of A. muricata leaf ethanol extract was administered to Sprague Dawley rats over an observational period of 14 days. The toxicity evaluation (physical and behavior observation, body weight, renal function test, liver function test and ¹H NMR analysis) showed no abnormal toxicity. Histopathological analysis manifested mild changes, i.e., the treated kidney manifested mild hypercellularity of mesangial cells and mild red blood cell congestion. In addition, there was mild hemorrhage into tissue with scattered inflammatory cells and mild dilated central vein with fibrosis in the liver. However, the changes were very mild and not significant which correlate with other analyses conducted in this study (biochemical test and ¹H NMR metabolomic analysis). On the other hand, urinary ¹H NMR analysis collected on day 15 revealed high similarity on the metabolite variations for both untreated and treated groups. Importantly, the outcomes suggest that A. muricata leaf ethanol extract can be safely consumed at a dose of 2000 mg/kg and the LD₅₀ must be more than 2000 mg/kg.

Postbiotics, defined as preparations of inanimate microorganisms and their components that confer health benefits, are emerging as stable and safe alternatives to probiotics. This review summarizes recent advances in the biochemical composition, mechanisms of action, and applications of postbiotics and paraprobiotics in human and animal nutrition. It also highlights innovations in omics technologies, artificial intelligence, and sustainable production strategies that are shaping next-generation microbiome-based functional foods and therapeutic interventions.

Background: Moringa oleifera is a medicinal plant rich in bioactive compounds. Native to Southeast Asia, it thrives in tropical climates like Malaysia. Maturity stages of M. oleifera leaves might substantially affect the effectiveness of therapy; hence, optimizing the bioactive phytoconstituents is crucial. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry(LC-MS)-based metabolomics is essential to (i) evaluate differences in phytochemical composition and bioactivities across leaf maturity, (ii) profile and model leaf metabolome across maturity stages using untargeted ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) for key metabolites annotation, and with multivariate data analysis (MVDA) to reveal maturity-linked clusters and discriminant metabolites, and (iii) integrate multivariate regression to relate metabolite signatures to bioassays and nominate optimal maturity stages. Methods: M. oleifera leaves were harvested at different maturity stages (day-30, 45, and -60) from Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia. Aqueous ethanolic extracts were subjected to bioactivity assays, including total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid contents (TFC), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, ferric reducing power test (FRAP) antioxidant activity, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition. Metabolomics profiling was conducted, and the correlation of phytochemicals to bioactivities was performed by multiple MVDA models. Results: Day-60 leaf extracts exhibited higher TPC and TFC compared to younger stages, with strong antioxidant activity as indicated by elevated DPPH and FRAP values. In contrast, AChE inhibition was highest in day-30 extracts. Metabolomics profiling with chemometrics integration using MVDA identified and tentatively annotated 27 metabolites with predominantly flavonoids (59%), phenolic acids (19%), glucosinolates (7%), and minor components including coumarins, folates, and alkaloid-like compounds. Principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS) biplot revealed distinct metabolic clustering, with day-60 extract formed clear separated cluster, determined by accumulation of quercetin rutinoside, chlorogenic acid, kaempferol derivatives, and procyanidin B2. PLS biplot demonstrated that quercetin derivatives, chlorogenic acid, and procyanidin B2 were positively associated with antioxidant indicator, while coumarin and folic acid aligned with AChE inhibition. Unknown metabolites indicated by chromatogram peak area with high Variable Importance in Projection (VIP) scores (>1) also contributed to bioactivity trends and separation, lead to potential of unannotated phytochemicals. Conclusion: This study found that maturity stage influences the phytochemistry and bioactivities of M. oleifera leaf. Chemometrics integration of metabolomics analysis with bioassays shows that maturity stages drive distinct metabolite clustering and bioactivities, with day-60 yielding the highest phenolic, flavonoid, and antioxidant capacity (DPPH/FRAP), while day-30 exhibits the strongest AChE inhibition, thereby, defining maturity-specific optimal harvests.